46 - The Fens : Analysis: Ecosystem Services

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Fertile soils
• Climate
• Shellfish

State – Soils over the coastal and central fens are rich, fertile and calcareous. Further inland soils are defined by dark, friable peat.

44 per cent of the soil in the NCA is classified as Grade I agricultural land, 43 per cent as Grade II.

In1987 it was estimated that there were 24, 000 ha of lowland peat soils in the Fens. (Holman 2009)

The Wash is an important shellfish fishery.

Some wildfowling still takes place here.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – The Fens produces 37 per cent of all outdoor-grown vegetables in the UK (including 24 per cent of potatoes and 17 per cent of sugar beet). Nearly 4,000 farms employ more than 12,800 people in intensive food production here. Arable crops, vegetables, fruit (for example around Wisbech) and horticulture (around Lincolnshire Fens) produce high value outputs. Fenland agriculture involves all year round cropping systems, heavy machinery which can cause compaction, use of herbicides and pesticides and fertiliser (NPK) inputs.

Soil management is primarily aimed at supporting food production, which may be at the expense of other ecosystem services.

The use of peatlands for arable or horticultural production requires drainage, which leads to subsidence of the ground surface and destruction of peat. Food production is important but current loss of soil means it may become less viable and/or productive in the future.

There are issues around land use and the unsustainable use of water.

Diffuse pollution of waterways is a problem but sewage is a far larger problem than from agriculture.

Opportunities – Work with farmers to ensure the long-term viability of soil and hence support the production of food and the agriculture industry and to ensure there are mechanisms to restore and maintain peat.

Encourage farmers to use techniques such as establishing break crops to manage land and protect soil.

Support research into new cultivation practices to protect the soil.

Increase the area of land under pasture/ permanent grassland to reduce the loss of soils from wind-blow.

Seek opportunities to harvest sustainable quantities of shellfish from the Wash.

Restore and promote a distinctive ‘Fenland cuisine’ using the locally produced larder of vegetables, salads, grain, fruit, and sustainable fish and fowl.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil quality
• Food provision
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Small areas of woodland

State – Very limited resource at present within this NCA covering just 1 per cent.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – While there are small areas of woodland in duck decoys (hide areas to where ducks are lured) and shelterbelts, the timber resource is scarce in this NCA. The fertility of the land affords a much greater economic return for growing food crops than for growing timber.

Opportunities – Minor opportunities for local timber for fuel and other uses.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Timber provision
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Rivers
• Drains
• Washlands
• Groundwater

State – The rivers that have been subject to assessment have a Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy (CAMS) status of ‘no water available’ in the summer months, and a ‘water available’ status during winter months (typically the period of high flow).

Rivers in the south and far south-east of the NCA generally have a CAMS ‘over abstracted’ status (The Cams and Ely Ouse Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, The Environment Agency, March 2007), including the River Great Ouse and The River Lark. The groundwater in this area also has an ‘over abstracted’ status.

Rivers in the north of the NCA had not been subject to water availability assessment in 2011.

Ground water is also over-abstracted.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – The Fens has the lowest precipitation rates in the UK.

Small parts of a number of major aquifers fall just within the NCA boundary (in the south-east and north-west). There is also a large number of major rivers in the NCA including the Ouse, Nene and Welland which rise well beyond the Fens.

Potable water for the north of the NCA, including the urban areas such as Peterborough, comes from outside the NCA.

Abstractions in the south-central NCA area are mainly for irrigation and industry, there being no public water supply licences in this area. Instead water is imported from outside the catchment for public water supply (The Old Bedford including Middle Level Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, March 2006).

The Ely Ouse to Essex Transfer Scheme takes place in this NCA, transferring surface water to Essex and using groundwater to augment flows in the Little Ouse (which flows through this NCA and the Brecks NCA) and the Thet (located in the Brecks NCA).

At times of low flow there is insufficient water in the Ely Ouse to meet abstraction demand for the Transfer Scheme. A supplementary scheme has been developed using a series of groundwater boreholes to pump water into the Little Ouse and Thet rivers with an additional transfer from the Little Ouse at Hockwold.

Opportunities – Potential to increase storage of water in this NCA by increasing the number of washlands and the storage capacity of existing washlands. This will increase water available for agriculture irrigation as well as provide opportunities to benefit nature conservation.

Opportunities also include potential storage of water within the large ecological restoration schemes – Great Fen, Wicken Vision, Lakenheath, Wissey Wetlands, South Lincolnshire.

Explore the potential to work with the farming community to consider the role of drought-resistant strains of crop or to develop alternative farming strategies.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Water availability
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Orchards
• Wild and naturalised relatives of cropped brassicas

State – Orchards hosting heritage species of fruit trees, such as very old Bramley apple trees and rare species.

Traditional orchards such as those around Wisbech are being lost through neglect and poor management or due to land sales for development.

Wild and naturalised relatives of cropped brassicas are locally common in the NCA.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – The presence of old/original fruit varieties could be important for future crop breeding.

Traditional orchards are inherent to historic landscape character.

Black mustard (Brassica nigra) is locally common on ditch banks, waste ground near the sea, on river banks and on road verges. Bargeman’s cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp campestris), also known as wild turnip, is compromised somewhat by hybridisation with cultivated subspecies of B. rapa, but may be native on the banks of streams and rivers here and there in Fenland. There are records of it by the Great Ouse and other main rivers.

Opportunities – Opportunities to preserve old varieties of fruit for their taste, to retain genetic information for its current value and for possible future crop breeding for example for resistance to diseases.

Opportunities to protect orchards and bring them into positive management should be explored, promoted and secured through use of agri- environment schemes

Opportunities to protect wild relatives of agricultural brassicas

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Genetic diversity
• Biodiversity
• Food provision
• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Pollination

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Biomass crops

State – Small amounts of miscanthus are grown in the Cambridgeshire Fens.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Potential miscanthus yield is high throughout the NCA. The large-scale, flat open landscape would mean that biomass crops were highly visible, changing the extensive vistas which make this area distinctive.

Biomass energy is a new use for willow/osiers, which has traditionally been grown for gardening and thatching.

Plantings which link to existing features such as copses, shelterbelts, farmsteads or villages, would be less intrusive.

The presence of biomass crops would be likely to displace the food growing capability in this area.

There is potential to establish short rotation coppice (SRC) especially where extensive peat loss has already occurred but this would also be likely to displace the food growing capability in this area and could affect water availability.

Erosion/destruction of archaeological remains by invasive root system, planting and harvest methods where soil cover is thin.

Opportunities – Work with the farming community to consider the role of biomass crops both as a potential fuel and for its biodiversity value and to protect soil texture.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biomass energy
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating water quality
• Pollination

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Peat soils
• Saltmarsh and mudflats

State – Estimates indicate that there are 24,000 ha of peat soils in this NCA. This makes a valuable contribution to carbon sequestration and storage.

Loss of peat and the carbon it stores has been very significant as a result of peat wastage in agriculturally drained and cultivated soils.

In accreting systems salt marshes have the potential for long-term storage of carbon.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The peat soils are highly valuable for agriculture (86 per cent of the NCA is Grade I and II) but continuing loss of peat and its stored carbon through wastage (shrinkage and oxidation) has been very significant where land is drained and intensively managed. In some areas ground levels have fallen by 1-2 m as a result of peat wastage. At Holme Fen the Victorian post, driven into the ground in 1851, records loss of a depth of over4 m since then.

In the future wind erosion of remaining dried peat soils will become increasingly significant. Fenland peat soils are wasting at up to around 2.1 cm/yr. For the surviving areas of deep peat it is estimated that the average wastage rate is around 1.5 cm/yr. In some areas peat depth is now very shallow (less than 200 mm) for example parts of Wimblington Fen which creates cultivation pressure as well as impacts on underlying archaeological remains. Loss of palaeo-environmental evidence and organic remains in such areas is total.

Where peat soils and their hydrological status are well managed, they will retain an important role in the storage of carbon.

The drying out and oxidation of peat, which can occur through a number of mechanisms, contributes to CO2 omissions.

Peatlands retaining a high water table continue to store new carbon through the build up of plant material that has captured atmospheric carbon through photosynthesis.

Grazing is important on the saltmarsh, major drainage embankments and flood meadows. Saltmarsh and mudflats have an important role in climate regulation due to carbon lock-in and they have important roles in coastal defence due to for example, their absorption of wave energy.

Opportunities – Re-creation of wet fen, wet grassland and washland together with changes to arable management (specifically minimum tillage, greater use of organic manures, biosolids and digestates plus soil conditioners) will help to ameliorate these significant losses if pursued on sufficient scale.

Increase opportunities to manage and protect the remaining peat resource soils appropriately for example by re-wetting and the build up of organic matter.

Encourage land owners and managers to pursue such activities.

Encourage the establishment of permanent grassland and other uncultivated land such as semi- natural habitats.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Climate regulation
• Food provision
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating coastal erosion
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Salt marshes and sandbanks

State – The salt marshes along the coast of the Wash are accreting between the River Steeping at Gibraltar Point and Wolferton Creek. The current Shoreline Management Plan does not identify a policy for the prevention of the erosion of mudflats and salt marshes. The policy approach is to hold the existing sea bank alignments.

From Wolferton Creek to Heacham the coastline is characterised by a natural shingle ridge backed by a grassed sea bank. The general movement of sediment is from the north to the south along the coastline. The Wash SMP identifies the need for a more detailed study is required to identify future actions.

During the 20th century 3, 000 ha of marsh were reclaimed on the Wash.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Climate change is causing sea levels to rise. It is also likely to bring about increased storminess, which will have an impact on the rate of erosion/accretion and could impact the protection levels that sea defences provide and on the supply and behaviour of sediment in the Wash. It could also affect the quantity and frequency of sediment exchanges between habitats, and alter processes such as sea-defence functions in saltmarsh (UK NEA).

Saltmarsh and mudflats in the Wash are accreting along this low energy coastline. They provide internationally important habitats for wildlife as well as important natural sea defences and are leading to increased natural protection for the coastline. In the short term (today to 2025), the policy approach is to hold the existing sea bank alignments.

Climate-related sea level rise will increase coastal squeeze where the saltmarsh is constrained by coastal defences on its landward side. Its ability to regulate erosion and mitigate flood and storm damage is threatened by changes in the frequency and severity of storms and low sediment availability.

Future sea-level rise may squeeze saltmarsh habitats against sea walls. This could be mitigated by managed realignment; the RSPB have created a 72 ha area of managed realignment at Freiston, near Boston as part of their work in this area.

Opportunities – Having areas of optimally-grazed marsh increases diversity and allows some less competitive halophytes to survive.

There is opportunity to reduce overgrazing of saltmarsh, which affects the vegetation structure and therefore the ability of the saltmarsh to trap sediment and to store nutrients and pollutants.

Opportunities to maintain the physical processes which sustain the Wash’s tidal, sub tidal and fringing coastal habitats.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating coastal flooding and erosion
• Climate regulation
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating of soil quality
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Tranquillity
• Recreation
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Permanent grassland
• Semi-natural habitats
• Washlands
• Reedbeds and other wetland habitats

State – For information regarding the current state of water quality within this NCA, refer to the Environment Agency (Draft river basin management plan maps).

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Excess nitrates, phosphates and pesticides have led to pollution and eutrophication in water courses. In addition, soil erosion is identified as an issue. The Anglian River Basin Management Plan indicates that the ecological status of rivers and waterways in the NCA are either good (for example the River Haven, parts of the River Nene and the River Welland north of Spalding) or moderate (for example the River Witham north west of Boston). Chemical water quality is generally good apart from sections of the Nene and Great Ouse which fail to reach good status for much of the NCA.

Where the groundwater chemical status has been assessed the groundwater chemical status is good.

Washlands on the rivers Nene, Ouse and Cam all contribute to the regulation of water quality. Habitat restorations schemes indicate there will be larger areas of washlands in future.

Within agricultural areas, measures can be taken to reduce nutrient and sediment run-off by establishing permanent grassland as a buffer along watercourses.

Some of the most productive areas in the NCA are on peat which brings its own issues in terms of soil management and moisture.

Semi-natural habitat such as reedbed and washland slow the passage of water through the hydrological system and help purify the water.

New areas of permanent grassland could be established to improve the management of existing ones and other semi- natural habitats including reedbeds, fens and wet grassland to establish natural enhancement of water quality.

Opportunities – Manage farmland under the principles established under the England Catchment Sensitive Farming Delivery Initiative.

Encourage landowners and managers to manage land to prevent the drying out of peat.

Encourage the establishment of areas of semi-natural habitat such as reedbed and washland which slow the passage of water through the hydrological system.

Establish new areas of permanent grassland and improve the management of existing ones and other semi-natural habitats including reedbeds, fens and wet grassland.

Survey and monitor the ditch flora and fauna to understand the impact that changing nutrient levels are having on the biodiversity of this habitat.

Work with the farming community to realise programmes of in-field nutrient analysis to inform fertiliser application rates which are performed at key times of the year.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water quality
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity
• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Climate regulation
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Semi-natural habitats
• Extensively grazed permanent grasslands and washlands
• Rivers and their washlands, ditches and dykes
• Remaining fens and large ecological restoration schemes
• Artificial flood defence structures

State – The four main catchments within the NCA are the Witham, Welland, Nene and Great Ouse. The Environment Agency (EA) flood risk map indicates the majority of the NCA is at high risk of river and/or coastal flooding; flood control is a key issue for most of the NCA.

The remaining fens allow a longer period of water storage.

UKNEA provides a rigorous estimate of the possible increase in flood hazard. This is a crucial task for planning future climate change adaptation strategies but our understanding of this change in risk is currently limited.

There are solidly-built flood defence structures as the ground is so flat – rivers, especially where diverted, are embanked.

The rivers and wetland of the Fens also assist upstream, neighbouring NCAs with their water regulation.

The salt marshes along the coast absorb wave energy and provide a barrier hence mitigating tidal flooding.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The Fens are low-lying with much land below sea level. The EA flood risk map indicates that the majority of the NCA is at high risk of river and/or coastal flooding. Flood control is a key issue for most of the NCA particularly since the major flooding events in 1953. Increases in precipitation events associated with climate change may lead to an increase in flooding.

The current flood storage capacity in the NCA needs to be maintained and increased particularly where there is the likelihood of high tide and high run-off/river flow combinations. A flood risk management strategy is being produced for the Fens to investigate how flood risk varies across the area and the best approach to managing this risk in the future.

However, most settlements are offered some protection from flooding by man-made defences on the coast and main rivers. In addition, washlands (areas of permanent grassland deliberately flooded to prevent rivers overtopping) occur on the major river systems and include three large SSSI: the Ouse, Nene and Cam washes. In the past the washland habitat was considerably more extensive; estimates suggest that only 3 per cent now remains. This means that the ability of the land to retain and slow water passage has been lost.

Historically the Fens have been heavily managed to reduce the probability of river and tidal flooding. Flood risk is expected to increase in future. Short-term, existing flood defences can be maintained at existing levels – this is current policy. In future flooding is expected to become more intense, so protection given by these defences might decline.

There is a risk of growing salinity within groundwater, especially close to the coast, due to over-abstraction.

Opportunities – Increase the current flood storage capacity by creating sizeable areas of lowland fen, reedbeds, flood plain grazing marsh on coasts and rivers concentrating on areas at risk near settlements.

Implement the recommendations from the EA Anglian Habitat Restoration Programme.

Produce a strategy to develop a sustainable, integrated and long-term flood risk management approach.

Adopt Great Fen strategy elsewhere, combining objectives for rewetting flood plains for biodiversity and for flood risk management; this aims to store winter floodwater while also providing water to restore and maintain fenland habitat on previously arable land. Other objectives include improving water quality, increasing recreation and tourism opportunities, and improving quality of life for local people.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water flow
• Food provision
• Water availability
• Climate regulation
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating coastal erosion
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Agricultural land, permanent grassland and other semi-natural habitats
• Soils

State – 86 per cent of the soils in the Fens are Grade 1 and Grade 2 agricultural land.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – The dark humus-rich peaty fens and the finer lighter silty fens are the key natural resource. Wastage of peat areas together with sea level rise in an area dominated by artificial drainage will impact on the ecosystem services provided in the longer term. This could be devastating for agriculture as it becomes more difficult to pump waterlogged soils dry.

Compacted and poorly structured soils lead to reduced infiltration and storage of water and, potentially, increased soil erosion, especially in areas where mineral soils are dominant.

Maintenance of the integrity of the hydrological system in this NCA will contribute to maintaining and improving soil quality. Dry soils here are lost through ‘fen blows’ which are a major cause of erosion. Some of the soils are re-deposited elsewhere in the Fens but much soil is lost to sea or to neighbouring NCAs. High volumes of material can be deposited into watercourses.

Opportunities – Encourage the adoption of the Defra Code for Good Agricultural Practice (2009) and Environment Agency’s ‘Think Soils’ manual (2008) to avoid soil compaction and maintain good soil structure.

Maintain wetted peat soils to reduce loss through compaction, oxidation and wastage.

For mineral soils in the NCA, management to build up soil organic will help to maintain and enhance soil quality.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil quality
• Biomass provision
• Regulating water quality
• Climate regulation
• Pollination
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity
• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Regulating soil erosion

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Semi-natural habitats
• Extensively grazed permanent grassland
• Soils with high organic matter
• Trees and woodland

State – The Holman report indicates a reduction in peat soil depth of up to 1.27 cm/yr in the early 21st century. Average wastage rate estimated in 2011 is 1.2 cm/yr.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Loss of peat through wastage is largely due to shrinkage by drainage, and, oxidation where the peat has dried.

Water erosion is an issue in the Little Ouse Priority Catchment with light sandy soils, under maize and root cropping In the Lincolnshire Coastal Rivers Catchment, water erosion may be associated with outdoor pig rearing or intensive cereal and oil seed rape production.

Use of heavy high-powered equipment increases the risk of soil compaction and consequently incidence of enhanced run-off and erosion by water. For mineral soils, management to build up soil organic reduces the chance of soil compaction and therefore erosion

Wind erosion is a problem, particularly where spring-sown crops offer a bare loose soil surface to strong winds. This is an issue particularly on peaty and sandy soils, as is the removal of soil with harvested root crops.

Soil erosion (by water or wind) from cultivated and unvegetated land has an important link with pollution to surface waters, particularly from pesticides and phosphates although phosphates originate significantly more from sewage than from agriculture.

Opportunities – Increase opportunities to manage and protect the remaining peat resource, for example by raising water levels to maintain (or enhance where possible) the build up of organic matter. Encourage land owners and managers to pursue such activities.

Encourage landowners and managers to use farming methods that protect the soil such as maintaining vegetative cover. Use of grass buffer strips can reduce soil erosion from susceptible arable fields in the autumn and winter.

Encourage the adoption by farmers and landowners of the Environment Agency’s ‘Think Soils’ manual (2008)

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Food provision
• Climate regulation
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating coastal erosion
• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Orchards
• Semi-natural habitats
• Older, broader grass verges and sea/ flood-banks positioned close to arable fields

State – Some biofuels, such as oilseed crops, require insect pollination. These crops may become more widespread in the future if demand increases.

Some crops such as strawberries, tomatoes and peppers are mainly pollinated by managed bumblebees which are imported commercially.

Lowland meadow habitats found in the NCA provide important nectar sources for pollinating insects in an area otherwise devoid of significant remaining semi-natural habitats.

Traditional orchards such as those around Wisbech are being lost through neglect and poor management.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The area is very poorly served by pollinators as large swathes of landscape are increasingly devoid of the semi-natural habitats on which the pollinators depend for food and shelter. These habitats are now found in isolated pockets save for a few larger areas/strips, especially the flood meadows and grazing marshes of the Ouse and Nene washes.

There has been a severe and corresponding decline in wild and managed pollinator numbers over the last 30 years. This trend is likely to continue. The problem is caused by loss of semi-natural habitat, the introduction of pathogens, the inappropriate use of agro-chemicals and by climate change.

Traditional orchards are inherent to historic landscape character.

A greater variety of pollinators would allow a greater variety of crops to be grown. Creating further semi-natural habitats would be very cost-effective as it would be much cheaper than importing bees in the long term.

Opportunities – Use the Countryside Stewardship scheme (for example pollen and nectar mixes for field margins) to enhance landscape character and increase landscape connectivity. This would increase the ability of the pollinators to service nominated food crops.

Opportunities to protect orchards and bring them into positive management should be explored, promoted and secured through use of agri-environment schemes.

Use of buffer strips and modified crop- management to reduce the input of NPK fertiliser to verges/banks and other forb- rich habitats.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history

No information available.

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Expansive open, flat wetland landscape and seascape

State – A sense of place is created by the wide landscapes of flat, low-lying farmed landscapes where the fields are separated by an extensive system of dykes which in turn form key parts of the landscape.

The Wash seascape and the agricultural use of the land produce strong seasonal changes.

Big skies as well as the ‘value of nothingness’ are appealing, regarded as tranquil and thought- provoking rather than exciting.

The wind is a key characteristic of the landscape experience in the area.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – A hierarchy of embanked rivers, drains and ditches forms a distinct geometric pattern and provides a strong influence throughout the area.

Marshes, swamps and fens add a further distinct character, notably adjacent to the Wash where the exceptionally open aspect is broken only by sea walls. Despite apparent uniformity, marked variations occur throughout the area.

Built forms exhibit a strong influence ranging from historic cathedrals and churches, like Ely and Boston, to large agricultural and industrial structures.

The Fens have inspired writers, poets and artists over the centuries, including John Clare, Charles Kingsley and Graham Swift, Peter Scott and Carry Akroyd.

Offshore windfarms are changing the character of this landscape. The size of the individual units, the area covered by windfarms and the cumulative effect of their locations is having a significant impact on the long views out of this NCA to the east.

The swans at Welney are a major visitor draw and contribute strongly to sense of place.

Opportunities – Ensure that the system of open field and dykes is maintained so that it both contributes to the landscape and provides linking habitats.

Adopt cultivation practices that will ensure the long-term sustainability of agriculture.

Protect and enhance the wildlife interest of the Fens including the spined loach in the ditches and the large populations of birds overwintering at the Washes.

Seek opportunities to bring attention to the rivers and their role of water in shaping the landscape, especially where rivers are concealed behind flood defences.

Retain long open views and the experience of big skies and Fenland sunsets.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Tranquillity
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Sediments containing a rich record of past environmental and climate change over millions of years
• Well-preserved remains of prehistoric landscapes exposed due to shrinking peat levels
• Historic dykes, drainage pattern and system
• Traditional orchards and , historic hedgerow pattern
• Grazing marshes with traditional breeds of cattle
• Ely Cathedral and Boston Stump
• Flag Fen and major finds such as the log boats found recently near Whittlesey

State – A sense of history results from the environmental records preserved within the Fenland sediments and well-preserved remains of prehistoric landscapes that are being exposed due to shrinking peat levels with especially rich archaeology including bronze-age and Roman features found on fen margins.

The dykes, flood banks, sluices, flood plains and drainage patterns reveal other aspects of the history of the Fens. The diversity of field patterns is enhanced by ancient semi-regular enclosures

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The area’s distinct history and character are inextricably associated with the fine balance between man’s ability to extract agricultural wealth from a productive landscape and the forces of the natural landscape which are constantly poised to return to a ‘waterland’ state.

The subtle changes in soils and drainage have determined the historic settlement pattern, with the monastic establishments at Ely, Crowland and Thorney reflecting the clay islands’ ability to support large settlements. Likewise the ‘silty fen’, arcing around the Wash, gave rise to the towns with their fine medieval churches (such as Boston) and Georgian merchant houses in Wisbech and Spalding.

Distinctive ‘half houses’ are tiny vernacular houses typical of the Lincolnshire Fens, and were owned by smallholders with very small holdings. They were usually dispersed in areas where smallholdings were the norm.

The settlements on the ‘Peaty Fen’ followed the systematic drainage of the Levels and is less rich in visible historic features, however they conceal considerable evidence of prior settlement dating back to prehistoric times (for example at the nationally important waterlogged wood structures at Flag Fen). Flag Fen is a site of international importance – a bronze- age platform and causeway just outside what is now Peterborough.

The peaty fens also conceal a detailed fossil record of past landscapes and climates as well as an intricate pattern of former watercourses and creeks that are evident in aerial, infra red and LiDAR images.

Archaeology in the Fens is well protected where the fen deposit sequence is intact or peat levels relatively deep.

Remains are increasingly being discovered as the peat dries out – for example the dugout log boats revealed at Whittlesey at the end of 2011.

Opportunities – Raise awareness of the value of the rich archaeology and historic time depth associated with this area.

Protect and interpret the historic landscapes of large fields and ditches with flood banks along rivers that show evidence of changing human use; the protection of heritage assets should be ensured at every opportunity.

Seek opportunities to enhance the setting, interpretation and legibility of heritage assets should be identified and realised.

The restoration and conversion of vernacular buildings should be sympathetic and in keeping with local landscape character

While archaeology in the Fens may be protected from ordinary building development because of its deep nature in parts, there are other areas, for example near Spalding, where the shallow deposits are severely threatened by development.

Opportunities to ensure that gravel extraction below the archaeological horizon does not threaten the bronze- age landscape in e.g. South Lincolnshire

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Tranquillity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Areas away from settlements and major transport corridors
• Wetland landscape , seascape and coastal zone

State – Tranquillity is an important feature of the NCA, with 64 per cent classified as undisturbed according to the CPRE Intrusion Map 2007 (representing a decrease from 90 per cent since the 1960s).

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – The open and empty landscape means different things to different people; some can find it featureless and intimidating whereas others value its tranquillity, which still persists away from the settlements and major transport corridors.

Tranquillity is likely to be particularly associated with the area’s remaining wetland habitats, notably the large marsh areas adjacent to the Wash. There is, however, major aircraft noise within several miles of the bombing range at RAF Holbeach.

Opportunities – The tranquil character of the area should be protected and intrusion into the most rural areas avoided. In particular light pollution and light spillage from any new development should be prevented or minimised.

Opportunities to conserve the sense of remoteness and ‘wildness’ should be taken. Tranquillity should be enhanced where opportunities arise through the removal of obtrusive features, such as signage, lighting, overhead lines and poles.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Tranquillity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Rights of way
• Long-distance walking routes
• Open access land
• Coastal access
• Biodiversity sites
• Rivers

State – 2, 314 km of rights of way within this NCA.

Much of the landscape is not accessible as it is intensively agricultural with no public footpaths and no means of crossing ditches without many detours.

The sea wall is fronted by large areas of saltmarsh and the sea is often not visible.

Angling is a popular recreation.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Agriculture dominates the landscape and recreational opportunities are restricted, even though recreation is supported by 2,314 km of rights of way (at a density of 0.6km per km2) and 627 ha of open access land.

The coast is not widely used due to its inaccessibility and the noise from the bombing range at RAF Holbeach.

Communities in this NCA include many migrant workers and have high Indices of multiple deprivation (IMD), with various health issues including obesity, lower than average life expectancy, high levels of physical inactivity and many experience issues with isolation. The ageing population is also an issue.

Opportunities – Major habitat restoration projects at Great Fen and Wicken Fen offer opportunities for improving and creating new access.

New national coastal access routes are planned.

The Fens Waterways Link is an ambitious project to connect, by navigable water, the cathedral cities of Lincoln, Peterborough and Ely.

There are opportunities for promoting long distance walking (such as the Ouse Valley Way, Hereward Way and Nene Valley Way) and good routes for cycling along old drove roads.

Seek opportunities to promote biodiversity sites such as the swans at Welney and bird-watching at the Washes.

Enhance historic and natural environment interpretation facilities in key fenland visitor spaces.

Promote opportunities to maintain water quality for the benefit of anglers.

Opportunities to address health problems and other effects of high deprivation indices issues can be provided within the NCA: improved access to local green spaces could provide a potential solution to many of these issues, offering people opportunities to improve their lifestyles, whilst benefitting from closer interaction with the natural environment.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Recreation
• Tranquillity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Internationally, nationally and locally protected sites

State – A number of sites in the Fens are notified for their international importance because the habitats they contain support internationally important numbers of breeding and/or overwintering species. The Wash’s salt marshes and sandbanks are particularly important, and inland the rivers Ouse, Nene and Cam Washes are vital resources for wildlife.

Of major importance are the areas such as Wicken, Holme and Woodwalton fens. Wicken especially is the single most species- rich site in the UK; other sites including Baston Fen in Lincolnshire are important for spined loach.

The NCA is important for common seals, overwintering birds – pink- footed and Brent geese, shelduck, lapwings, oystercatchers, common terns and various plover species, for spined loach, and great crested newts.

The Fens include several important Ramsar sites, SPAs and SAC including the Wash, the Ouse Washes and the Nene Washes.

There are 41 SSSI in this NCA covering 8,939 ha. In March 2011, 59 per cent (by number) were favourable, 27 per cent were unfavourable, 10 per cent were unfavourable recovering and 4 per cent were unfavourable declining.

Main beneficiary – International

Analysis – The Fens are of international importance for their biodiversity. Inland, habitats are provided by seasonally flooded wet grassland, calcareous fen, and a vast network of ditches which are home to the spined loach. The Ouse, Nene and Cam washes are of major importance for waterfowl; the Welney Washes near Ely are world-famous for their swans.

Key to the success of these habitats is the presence of water at the right time of year in the appropriate quantities.

The large embayment of the Wash with its associated salt marsh and mud flats provide important habitats for a number of species including pink-footed and Brent geese, shelduck, lapwings, oystercatchers, common terns and various plover species. The Wash is a feeding ground for marsh harriers.

Connectivity of species is aided by the creation of fresh habitats as is happening with the Great Fen Project.

Inputs of nitrates, phosphates and other pollutants have a major impact on biodiversity though eutrophication of waterways and changes to soil chemistry. These impacts in turn affect the entire food web.

Drought clearly affects wetlands such as fens. Drought-intolerant species can be assisted by regulation of water flow and water levels within the Fens.

Opportunities – Better management of water courses including the reconnection of watercourse channels with their associated washlands.

Opportunities to assist the conservation and growth of biodiversity by connecting diverse areas and enabling the spread of wildlife through the generation of. corridors and stepping stones.

The Great Fen project and Wicken, Holme and Woodwalton fens provide major opportunities to conserve and support biodiversity and there is scope for similar initiatives elsewhere in the Fens.

Opportunities to review Local Wildlife Sites (LWS) as appropriate and to monitor/improve the condition of these. Also to designate new LWS to preserve them for their educational, scientific/ research, aesthetic and/or historic value.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Tranquillity
• Regulating water flow
• Climate regulation
• Regulating coastal flooding and erosion

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Nationally and locally designated sites
• Jurassic clays
• Quaternary sediments including peat

State – Jurassic sediments including the Oxford, Kellaway and Kimmeridgian clays with greensand and chalk at the south-east of the NCA.

Quaternary deposits include a cyclic succession of peats, estuarine and marine clays and these demonstrate a detailed record of climatic and environmental changes over at least the last 500,000 years.

The wealth and variety of geology and geomorphology provides opportunities for study, reinforces local distinctiveness and character and, along the coast, helps to regulate flooding and erosion.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Brickmaking is a major industry at Whittlesey and around Peterborough with local bricks forming a distinct vernacular building material.

The Oxford Clay and Kings Dyke Brick Pit have been very important for palaeontology, with major Jurassic reptiles unearthed here.

Leedsichthys, the world’s largest fish, was discovered here, and is still being unearthed from these same sediments.

At Kings Dyke, fossiliferous sediments are made available for collection and research. This is very popular with local schoolchildren.

The local geology, especially the Quaternary deposits, is important for its record of climate and environmental change. Several SSSI have been notified for their buried Holocene (Flandrian) sediments.

Opportunities – Work with brick pit owners to ensure future availability of fossils for collection and research.

Work with landowners and tenants to conserve buried sediments which record climate change. Ensure that such sites are maintained at optimum levels to prevent drying out and the formation of acidic ochre.

Opportunities to review Local Geological Sites (LGS) as appropriate and to monitor/improve the condition of these. Also to designate new LGS to preserve them for their educational, scientific/research, aesthetic and/or historic value,

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Geodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history