104 - South Herefordshire and Over Severn : Analysis: Ecosystem Services

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Naturally fertile soils
• Agri-environment schemes
• Large flat fields in lowlands
• Pasture on slopes
• Water availability

State – Farming is the primary land use within this NCA, historically dominating and continuing to dominate the economy of the area.

Livestock farms are greater in number than arable, however in terms of area they are about equal.

The 2009 census registered far fewer animals in 2009 compared with 2000: 45,000 fewer sheep and 13,000 fewer pigs.

Cereals provide the greatest area of arable cropping at 9,597 ha in 2009. Root crops and oilseed are also significant. Fruit crops cover 1,040 ha, orchard fruit being processed locally at national drinks producers one of which is within this NCA at Much Marcle.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – This NCA has a long history of food production, which relates to the quality of the soils, particularly the fertility of the flood plain, and the relatively flat nature of the landscape providing easy accessibility for cultivation.

Given the nature of the area in terms of the important river catchments, sensitive soil management and best practice farming is essential to maintain river and soil quality and prevent soil erosion.

Traditional orchards are in decline, trees often not being replaced potentially resulting in the loss of local varieties. The sensitive restoration of traditional orchards could benefit local food production, biodiversity, culture and tourism.

Opportunities – Work with the local farming community to enhance and expand sustainable food production as appropriate, and safeguard future production while enhancing key ecosystem services such as biodiversity, water quality, water regulation, pollination services, genetic diversity, soil quality and minimising soil erosion.

Develop stronger branding for locally produced food, and encourage the purchasing of local produce to benefit the local economy, climate regulation and local culture, thus maintaining and strengthening farming and its associated cultural landscapes and wildlife it supports.

Encourage the adoption of catchment sensitive farming principles.

Traditional orchards provide opportunity for high quality local produce and protection of local varieties, with the potential to link in with tourism initiatives such as orchard history, tasting events, seasonal celebrations and walking routes.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Food provision
• Pollination
• Genetic diversity
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity
• Climate regulation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Area of existing woodland

State – The existing coniferous and broadleaved plantations currently provide and may offer further potential for the provision of timber.

There are approximately 5,600 ha of woodland in the NCA, 11 percent of its area, some of which is grown for timber production. At the beginning of 2014, Forestry Commission data recorded 73 percent of woodland in the NCA to be under some form of management and 27 percent unmanaged.1,023 ha are Forestry Commission owned.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – The agricultural value of much of the land in this NCA probably limits the area available for woodland expansion; however, emphasis on the type of timber production could be altered. Species composition is approximately 37 percent conifer, 51 percent broadleaves, but for the period 2009-2028 the proportion of broadleaves in Forestry Commission managed woodlands is planned to increase through plantation on ancient woodland sites (PAWS) and the replacement of conifers by broadleaves.

Opportunities – Increase the area of managed broadleaf woodland on Forestry Commission land through PAWS restoration and the replacement of conifers by broadleaves, increasing biodiversity and moving timber provision from softwood to hardwood.

Raise awareness of the current economic value of timber or wood fuel together with examples of sustainable management, which also benefits the landscape and biodiversity.

Support the development of local skills and markets for small-scale local timber and other woodland produce.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Timber provision
• Biomass energy
• Regulating soil erosion
• Climate regulation
• Regulating water flow
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Abstraction
• River Wye
• High rainfall area

State – The main rivers in this NCA are the Wye, the Monnow and the Leadon. The Wye rises at Plynlimon in the Cambrian mountains of Wales and has a very large catchment within a high rainfall area, the Monnow rises near Craswall on the English/Welsh border, while the source of the Leadon is at Evensbach near Ledbury.

The NCA does not overlay any major aquifers but in the western half of the NCA groundwater sources are closely connected to surface flows and so their resource availability has been included within that of the rivers.

In the north-east of the NCA, the minor Bromsberrow and Oxenhall North aquifers provide base flow to the River Leadon (the aquifers cover the area approximately from Botloe’s Green north east to the boundary of the NCA). Bromsberrow and Oxenhall North aquifers are classified as ‘over abstracted’.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Much of the water abstracted within this NCA is used by agriculture; however, water is also abstracted from the Wye to supply the city of Gloucester in the neighbouring Severn and Avon Vales NCA.

According to the relevant Catchment Abstraction Management Strategies there is ‘no water available’ for additional abstraction from the River Wye or the River Monnow or their tributaries within the NCA. New licenses for abstraction from these rivers or their tributaries will only be granted if it can be ‘demonstrated that the abstractions will have no adverse effect on the integrity of the River Wye SAC’.

The Environment Agency Wales encourages ‘water management measures’ such as the use of winter storage reservoirs in this area, in order to make supplies more reliable (Wye Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, March 2008).

In the east of the NCA, there is similarly ‘no water available’ in the River Leadon or its tributaries (Severn Vale Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, January 2008).

Opportunities – Seek, where possible, to increase the water retention ability of soil, and reduce the rate of water loss from the area through the establishment of rough vegetation and targeted drainage management to increase water availability in periods of low rainfall.

Maintain ecological flow levels in water courses by managing abstraction so as to avoid over-abstraction resulting in low flow levels.

Well designed winter water storage reservoirs on farms could help alleviate the levels of abstraction for water used on farmland.

Slow the flow of water across the landscape to maintain more constant river levels through ponds, scrapes and more naturalised drainage.

Support measures to maintain and improve soil structure to increase permeability and water retention by the soil.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Water availability
• Food provision
• Biomass energy
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality
• Climate regulation
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Local fruit varieties
• Herefordshire cattle

State – This and the surrounding NCAs of the major fruit- producing counties of Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire retain a wide range of local varieties of orchard fruit cultivated over hundreds of years.

Hereford cattle originated in the county in the 18th and 19th centuries and have subsequently spread worldwide as a universal beef breed.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Genetic diversity of orchard fruit varieties are important to maintain in order to safeguard food provision, and afford increased resilience to climate change and disease.

Examples of local varieties from this NCA include the Dymock red, a very old cider apple from the village of Dymock, Turner’s Barn, a pear from Newent and Winnal’s Longdon, a pear raised by Mr Winnal at Weston-under- Penyard in about 1790 and found planted between Ross-on-Wye and Tewkesbury (Gloucestershire Orchard Group).

Where Hereford cattle still graze the landscape they contribute significantly to both the genetic foundation of the breed and the distinctive sense of place. They are a useful breed for ‘conservation’ grazing.

Opportunities – Maintain collections such as the national fruit collection at Brogdale Farm, Kent and the Perry Pear collection at Hartpury, Gloucestershire.

Raise awareness of local varieties and link owners with supplier.

Encourage regeneration and planting of local varieties.

Use local traditional breeds of livestock, such as Hereford cattle, where appropriate for conservation grazing maintaining a genetic resource in the county of origin.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Genetic diversity
• Climate regulation
• Pollination
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing woodland

State – Currently there is little biomass production in this NCA as most of the productive land area is used for food production.

There is approximately 5,600 ha of woodland in the NCA (11 percent of the NCA area), which offers some potential for the provision of biomass by bringing unmanaged woodland under management and as a by- product of commercial timber production. Hedgerows also provide local opportunities for coppiced timber.

The NCA offers medium potential yield for short rotation coppice throughout the NCA while there is generally a medium potential yield for miscanthus in the centre of the NCA, with pockets of low and high potential yield around the fringes of the NCA to the west, north, and east.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – There is some potential for the provision of biomass through bringing some areas of unmanaged woodland back under small-scale coppice management. This may also locally extend to coppiced wood from hedgerow management.

There may also be some potential for miscanthus and short rotation coppice in some areas of the NCA, although due to the high agricultural quality of the soil most of the productive land is used for food production.

Siting of any energy crops is critical due to the potential water use requirements, chemical inputs and affect on soil structure and erosion. Damage to historic features such as field boundaries, parkland and ridge and furrow should also be avoided.

For information on the potential landscape impacts of biomass plantings within the NCA, refer to the tables of ‘opportunities and optimum sitings for energy crops’ on the Natural England website.

Opportunities – Opportunities for short rotation coppice and miscanthus exist in the NCA if suitably located.

There is substantial potential for use of wood for biomass from existing woodlands, for example, bringing areas of woodland into traditional coppice management for small-scale wood fuel production and benefits to biodiversity, some hedgerow management could also be included in this.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biomass energy
• Climate regulation
• Biodiversity
• Water availability

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Semi-natural and conifer woodland
• Ancient hedgerows networks and traditional orchards
• Soil carbon and stable microbial community under unimproved permanent pasture

State – There is generally a low soil carbon content across the NCA of 0-5 percent, reflecting the dominance of mineral soils in which organic content is likely to be particularly low under continuous cultivation.

The combination of woodland, parkland, traditional orchards and hedgerows plays an important part in carbon sequestration.

The permanent pasture, fen and heathland, found in this NCA, contributes through soil carbon storage which would otherwise be released by aerobic microbial activity on exposure of the soil to air through activity such as ploughing.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – The potential for soil carbon sequestration in this NCA is low as there is no active peat deposition, however, in mineral soils, carbon sequestration and storage can be increased slightly by increasing organic matter inputs and by reducing the frequency/area of cultivation, also benefiting soil condition and water retention.

Woodland, hedgerows, traditional orchards and parkland trees all retain and sequester carbon both within the wood and uncultivated soils beneath. Maintenance and expansion of these woody resources will benefit climate regulation.

High concentrations of permanent pasture and semi-natural habitats, particularly permanently wet anaerobic soils, also retain carbon, an increased proportion of which would be released through microbial action if the soil was ploughed and exposed to air. However, where permanent pasture is grazed by cattle, it can result in the release of methane by the animals themselves. Other ruminants such as sheep also release methane but to a lesser extent per animal.

Production of inorganic fertiliser is particularly energy intensive and large volumes of greenhouse gases are emitted during production. Soil testing enables the calculation of optimal fertiliser application rates, thus reducing excess use of fertiliser, saving energy, money and benefiting water quality.

Opportunities – Maintain levels of carbon sequestration through sustainably managing and expanding where possible, the woodland and hedgerows of the area.

Prevent the release of carbon dioxide by maintaining permanent pasture and ensuring it is managed within a sustainable regime.

Encourage incorporation of organic matter into cultivated mineral soils to appropriate levels, avoiding overloading that might cause diffuse pollution.

Maintaining traditional orchards and wood pasture and parkland, stores carbon both through the trees themselves and the permanent grassland beneath.

Work with the farming community to ensure they have adequate access to soil analysis to enable the calculation of appropriate levels of fertilizer inputs to reduce energy wastage and benefit water quality.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Climate regulation
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Biodiversity

No information available.

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Hedgerows and buffer strips across steeper slopes
• Permanent grassland particularly low input
• Semi-natural habitats
• Semi-natural and conifer woodland
• Appropriate tillage
• Good livestock management
• Buffer strips alongside watercourses
• Diffuse and point source pollution prevention
• Sustainable urban drainage

State – For information regarding the current state of water quality within this NCA, refer to the Environment Agency (Draft river basin management plan maps).

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Water quality is important to this area in both the provision of water and in support of much of the biodiversity resource to be found associated with rivers and watercourses. This is significantly and directly influenced by the management of the surrounding farmland.

Careful management of grasslands and livestock, particularly minimising inputs, controlling access to watercourses and waste (farmyard manure) management is essential to maintaining good water quality.

Improved farm infrastructure will reduce sources of pollution and further contribute to maintaining good water quality.

Priorities, under the Catchment Sensitive Farming initiative for the River Wye Priority Catchment are to: reduce the loss of sediment, nutrients and pesticides in the catchment and to reduce run-off from agricultural fields, the pathways that run-off takes through gates and down tracks and the poaching of river banks by livestock (Capital Grant Scheme – Funding Priority Statement 2014/15, Catchment 23: The River Wye, Natural England). Although there is some scope for work within the NCA, many of the water quality issues also rely on catchment sensitive farming upstream of the NCA.

Woodland, both coniferous and broadleaved and other semi-natural habitats, particularly adjacent to water courses help to buffer water courses, filtering nutrients and soil particles from run-off.

Opportunities – Maintain ecological flow levels in water courses by managing abstraction to avoid over-abstraction.

Maintain and expand the network of semi-natural habitats adjacent to watercourses.

Maintain and restore hedgerows across slopes within river catchments.

Work with farmers across the Wye catchment, to improve soil quality to reduce run-off, and fence water courses to prevent excessive poaching of the river bank by livestock.

Create grassland buffer strips within arable farming systems and adjacent to water courses to intercept soil run-off pesticides and nutrients and reduce the volumes entering directly into river systems.

Work with landowners the Environment Agency and water companies to address point source discharges.

Incorporate sustainable urban drainage schemes (SUDS) into new development to reduce pollution from run-off from urban areas reaching rivers.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity
• Climate regulation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing semi-natural habitat
• Existing semi-natural and conifer woodland
• Sustainable urban drainage
• Natural flood plain

State – There is notable flood risk at Ross-on-Wye from the River Wye and its confluence with the Rudhall Brook tributary and around Holme Lacy associated with the confluence of the rivers Wye and Lugg to the north (Risk of Flooding from Rivers and Sea, Environment Agency). Surface water and local sewer flooding is also an issue. There is also an area of good quality agricultural land at flood risk along the flood plain of the Wye and Garren Brook.

Water from the Leadon contributes to flooding at Gloucester where it joins the River Severn.

In the wider landscape areas of semi-natural vegetation, woodland and hedgerows all contribute to slowing runoff, which helps mitigate flood water.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – The Wye and Usk Catchment Flood Management Plan suggests flood risk in the Lower Wye area is relatively high and is expected to increase into the future with quality agricultural land at risk. The rural nature of the catchment provides an excellent opportunity to reduce flood risk in a sustainable way through land use and land management practices (Wye and Usk Catchment Flood Management Plan, Summary Report, Environment Agency Wales, January 2010), such as buffer strips and hedgerows or woodlands across steep hillsides. Increasing organic matter incorporation into soils to encourage water retention and infiltration and expanding semi-natural habitats and woodlands where possible to slow the flow of water across the landscape reducing peak flows during high rainfall events.

The Environment Agency supports opportunities to store water or manage runoff to both reduce the threat of flooding and to provide wider environmental benefits, including along the rivers Wye and Monnow.

The risk of surface water flooding may also increase with more frequent extreme weather events and more regular heavy downpours. Managing the soil quality to maintain or improve its porosity, and soft landscaping and SUDS incorporated into new developments or implementation of rural SUDS can help to alleviate surface water flooding.

The large woodland area also helps to alleviate the effects of floods by slowing the rate water reaches the ground, increasing soil infiltration so reducing the amount of runoff, improving flood storage and slowing the overall rate of flood water movement.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to store water or manage runoff to provide flood risk or wider environmental benefits in this NCA and downstream NCAs.

Support the Environment Agency and other partners to carry out studies to identify surface water and sewer flooding issues and management options, particularly at Ross-on-Wye.

Seek opportunities to incorporate grass buffer strips and restore hedgerows across slopes within river catchments to slow the flow of water across the landscape.

Improve the quality of cultivated soils to increase water retention and reduce runoff.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Biodiversity
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Unimproved pastures
• Appropriate tillage
• Appropriate stocking levels
• Deciduous woodland cover
• Semi-natural habitats

State – This NCA has five main soilscape types:

• Freely draining slightly acid loamy soils, covering 53 percent of the NCA, adjacent to the Wye.
• Slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (37 percent) in the Garway Hills and Over Severn areas.
• Freely draining flood plain soils (4 percent) in the narrow flood plain of the Wye and Monnow.
• Slowly permeable seasonally wet acid loamy and clayey soils (3 percent) on Woolhope and May hills.
• Freely draining slightly acid sandy soils (2 percent) in the Leadon Vale.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Where soil is under semi-natural habitat and tree cover in this NCA, the soil is maintained in good condition. However, where the soil is under agricultural use, maintaining and improving the soil quality will safeguard and retain productive food provision in the long term and increase the soil’s resilience to climatic change and extreme weather events.

The freely draining slightly acid loamy soils (53 percent) have potential for increased organic matter levels through management interventions. They may be valuable for recharging groundwaters that provide the base flows to many of the rivers of the NCA. This requires the maintenance of good soil structure to aid water infiltration and the matching of nutrients to needs to prevent groundwater pollution.

In contrast the slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (37 percent) are easily poached by livestock and compacted by machinery when the soil is wet. Weak topsoil structures can easily be damaged and careful timing of activities is required to reduce the likelihood of soil compaction.

Opportunities – Support measures which employ minimal tillage and organic matter incorporation to increase soil organic matter and also relieve soil compaction on a landscape scale.

Work with the farming community to achieve appropriate stocking regimes which avoid poaching and reduce erosion.

Support measures which increase the volume of organic matter within worked soil to improve soil structure and conditions for soil fauna, increasing water infiltration.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil quality
• Climate regulation
• Regulating water quality
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Hedgerows and buffer strips across steeper slopes
• Permanent grassland
• Semi-natural habitats
• Sustainable systems of arable cultivation
• Well-managed livestock systems

State – Some 93 percent of soil cover in this NCA is prone to soil erosion. The only soils that are not susceptible are the freely draining flood plain soils and the slowly permeable seasonally wet acid loamy and clayey soils, together covering 7 percent of the NCA.

The freely draining slightly acid loamy soils and the freely draining slightly acid sandy soils, covering just over half of the NCA have enhanced risk of soil erosion on moderately or steeply sloping land where cultivated or bare soil is exposed, exacerbated where organic matter levels are low after continuous arable cultivation or where soils are compacted. There is also the potential for wind erosion on some coarse textured cultivated variants.

Equally, the slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (37 percent) are prone to compaction and capping/ slaking, leading to increased risk of soil erosion by surface water runoff, especially on steeper slopes such as the Garway hills.

Permanent grasslands, semi- natural habitats and woodland tend to be on the steeper slopes of this NCA so limiting soil exposure on these steep areas.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Reflecting the susceptibility to soil erosion, approximately two-thirds of the NCA, to the west, lies within Defra’s River Wye Priority Catchment. Soil erosion is an identified problem especially where soils are left bare under potato cropping, and under maize production where fields are left bare over the winter other than the remaining maize stubble. In turn, erosion of soils is leading to the siltation of rivers, of particular concern in the Wye SAC (Capital Grant Scheme – Funding Priority Statement 2010/11, Catchment 23: River Wye, Natural England).

Where soils are under permanent pasture, semi-natural habitat or tree cover, they are protected from erosion. In this NCA, the steepest slopes tend to be covered by these habitats or permanent pasture which if not over stocked and poached, will alleviate soil erosion from the steeper ground. Semi-natural habitat or buffer strips adjacent to water courses in the river valleys are particularly important to prevent soil runoff reaching the river, however in this NCA there is little semi- natural habitat in the heavily cultivated flood plain and flatter agricultural areas.

Opportunities – Work with the farming community within this NCA and further up the Wye catchment, to produce sustainable systems of arable cultivation and well- managed livestock to reduce poaching and soil exposure, particularly on the widespread steep sloping ground of this NCA, using measures such as maintaining or expanding areas of permanent grassland, dense hedgerows and buffer strips across steeper slopes.

Maintain and restore areas of semi- natural habitat and permanent grasslands to minimise soil compaction to improve water retention and reduce soil run-off across the NCA

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil erosion
• Climate regulation
• Regulating water
• Regulating water quality
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing flower-rich, semi-natural habitat
• Traditional and bush orchards
• Flower-rich road verges

State – Pollination of crops in this NCA is required for some market gardening, orchard fruit and arable crops such as varieties of oilseed rape which require insect pollination.

Semi-natural habitats supplying nectar for pollinators, including flower-rich hedgerows and road verges, are scattered throughout the agricultural area of the NCA. This is further enhanced by the significant number of traditional and bush orchards, which act as important sources of nectar for pollinating insects.

In spring, the woodland ground flora also bolsters the nectar supply.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – There is scope to improve the condition of habitats to provide for pollinators, including parkland, wood pasture, unimproved grassland, flower-rich meadows and verges and to expand areas where appropriate to do so.

Incorporation of flower-rich headlands, hedgerows and buffer strips into agricultural systems maintains a network of nectar sources throughout the farmed landscape, sympathetic management of road verges can be a beneficial addition to this network and also are aesthetically pleasing instilling a sense of place.

Opportunities – Increase the area and improve the condition of semi-natural habitats, with particular emphasis on unimproved flower rich grasslands, heathland, traditional orchard and species-rich hedgerows.

In addition, through mechanisms such as agri-environment schemes, encourage the use of nectar and forage mixes in arable land, to increase the availability of nectar sources in close proximity to food crops requiring pollination.

Work with the local authority/parishes to create multi-functional green spaces incorporating sympathetic management for pollination including appropriate management of road verges into cutting regimes, adding to the network of nectar sources close to pollinated food crops.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Pollination
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing semi-natural habitat
• Agricultural field margins
• Species-rich hedgerows
• Woodland
• Sympathetically managed verges

State – As described under pollination, there is a reasonable spread of semi-natural habitat throughout the agricultural area of this NCA which will support species that will aid pest regulation.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – As described under pollination, although there is a reasonable spread of rich semi- natural habitat across the NCA there is scope to improve the condition of this habitat through appropriate management and to extend it where possible.

Opportunities – Maintain and expand the area of semi- natural habitats, throughout the NCA to provide a range of niches to support pest-regulating species including invertebrates, birds and mammals.

In addition, through mechanisms such as agri-environment schemes, encourage the use of field margins, beetle banks and headlands in arable land, to encourage pest regulating species in close proximity to food crops requiring pollination.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Pest regulation
• Pollination
• Biodiversity
• Food production

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Views outward and of the Wye Valley from prominent vantage points
• Country houses and parkland Orchards
• Rural hamlets and farmsteads
• Norman castles
• Wild daffodil meadows and woods
• Meandering river valleys
• Historic settlements of Ross on Wye

State – A sense of place is provided by the undulating, intricate landscape with the prominent, rounded Garway Hills to the west and lower rolling ground and narrow meandering flood plains of the River Wye and its tributaries winding between Hereford and Ross-on-Wye.

Woodlands, including outstanding ancient woodlands, found on the steep outer slope of river bends, parklands, commercial and bush orchards and hedgerows with occasional hedgerow trees are extensive throughout the area and create a ‘well-wooded’ feel.

Orchards are now most numerous in the north and east of the NCA with traditional orchards mainly at the edges of the hamlets and around the farm houses. The farmland landscape of small pasture fields on steeper slopes, pockets of unimproved grassland on open commons and in small fields, contrast with the intensively cultivated flood plain, where fields are large to medium in size with low species-rich hedgerows especially along lanes.

Settlement pattern is dispersed, consisting of scattered farmsteads (substantial in size) and numerous hamlets formed around a manor house and church and linked by sunken, narrow winding lanes, with clustered settlements around commons. Typical building materials include red sandstone to the west while to the east of the River Wye, brick, timber-framed and limestone prevail.

Numerous churches and a wealth of country houses with extensive parklands add to the strongly rural character of this NCA.

Senses of inspiration and escapism are likely to be associated with the attractive vantage points from Sellack, Ballingham and Capler Hills of the River Wye and its flood plain as well as views of imposing courts, castles and hillforts, with more confined and intimate views to the east. The Dymock daffodils have inspired group of early 20th-century poets named after the village.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Though commercial agriculture covers a large proportion of this NCA, the rural character is maintained and a large part of it is protected by AONB designations.

The large number of trees in the landscape (woodland, parkland, orchard and hedgerow) could, in places be better managed and replacement trees planted to maintain the stock and the landscape quality into the future. In general, semi-natural habitat is fragmented due to the intensive farming activity in the area.

Further development is largely focussed on Ross-on-Wye. Within rural areas, new housing continues to be delivered through in significant numbers through the conversion of rural buildings, many being redundant agricultural buildings on farmsteads. Due to the importance of the Herefordshire landscape and the AONB designations, new buildings should be in keeping with the character of their surroundings using appropriate design, materials and landscaping.

Opportunities – Work with partners to maintain and restore the picturesque daffodil meadows and woodlands that have inspired poets and brought many day trippers to the area.

Work with land managers to find opportunities to maintain and restore distinctive traditional orchards and work to find markets for produce to ensure their future viability and sustainability.

Maintain and restore wood pasture and parklands and hedgerow trees that contribute to the well-wooded feel.

Maintain and restore semi-natural habitats such as the small neutral and calcareous grasslands around the Woolhope area.

Ensure habitats are restored and well managed, and linked through habitat creation.

Ensure the strongly distinctive pattern, form and features of settlements are maintained and enhanced through the use of good quality design, reflecting the historical development of settlements and the vernacular materials and building techniques.

Ensure the River Wye and its setting continues to be protected and enhanced by sensitive management of the surrounding landscape.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Geodiversity
• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Food provision

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Prehistoric sites
• Iron-age hill forts
• Norman castles
• Welsh influence
• Orchards Agriculture
• Houses set within parkland

State – The history of the landscape is evident in prehistoric burial sites, iron-age hill forts on several hill summits, Norman castles, and moated sites, medieval manorial centres characterised by the grouping of a motte, church and later manor house, reflect the past threat of Welsh invasion.

The Welsh influence is still strongly evident in the settlement pattern and place names to the west – the Garway Hills remaining part of the Welsh diocese of St David’s until the 19th century.

Fertile soils have supported a prosperous and long history of mixed agriculture.

Intensive orchard production has prevailed since the late 17th century linked to the Herefordshire cider industry.

Aspects of history likely to be most evident to the public are the market town of Ross on Wye and The Prospect, a historic park within the town with dramatic views of the Wye 30 m below. There are also the smaller market towns of Newent and Dymock. The latter gave its name to a group of poets including Rupert Brooke and Robert Frost who gathered at Lascalles Abercrombie’s cottages at Ryton.

Other features include the numerous houses set within parkland including Holme Lacy, Hill Court, the Repton landscape of Sufton Court, Stoke Edith, Brockhampton and manor houses such as Fawley Court and Old Court, all of which reflect the agricultural wealth of the area from the 17th century.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The fertile soils of this area have resulted in a long-standing agricultural history and sparse settlement pattern. The remains of historic features and heritage assets, both above and below ground are challenged by intensive agricultural activity.

Inappropriate cultivation may damage or destroy earthworks and buried remains. Neglect and unsympathetic conversion of and rural buildings, development around locally/nationally important buildings and the historic cores of settlements may undermine both the legibility of the historic record and the distinctive character of farmsteads and settlements.

Emphasis should be placed on the need to continue to protect and interpret the wealth of heritage present ensuring public access to historical sites such as the many parks and castles, which are well placed to make history accessible both physically and intellectually through interpretation and education.

Opportunities – Opportunities to enhance the setting, interpretation and legibility of heritage assets should be identified and realised to increase the understanding of the importance of historic land use in shaping the current landscape.

Encourage the use of best practice cultivation and agricultural methods to ensure the preservation of buried archaeological remains and above ground earthworks.

Encourage the sympathetic management, and only where necessary, the conversion of important buildings in the landscape.

Where identified as necessary, new development in historic settlements should seek to conserve and enhance the distinctive pattern and distribution of buildings, roads and enclosures, with the use of locally distinctive materials and local vernacular styles as appropriate.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Geodiversity
• Biodiversity
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Undeveloped rural character
• Areas with few major roads
• Extensive views across rural counties
• Long views of the Wye Valley AONB

State – According to the CPRE Intrusion Map, levels of intrusion have increased dramatically since the 1960s with undisturbed areas decreasing from just less than 97 percent to 66 percent in 2007. The largest ‘undisturbed ‘areas occur away from the major settlements of Hereford, Ross on Wye and Newent, and the main road corridors (M50, A49, A465 and A40).

The area retains a strong sense of tranquillity with the area’s strongly rural character and intricate landscape of woodland, field patterns, orchards and open commons along with the its river landscapes.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Development is largely concentrated around the larger towns of Ross-on-Wye and Newent. There is a risk of larger developments here intruding into the areas of rural tranquillity, both through increases in vehicular activity and light pollution.

The long distance footpaths and national cycle trails within this NCA provide access to the more rural and tranquil elements of the area such as quiet river valleys or hillside woodland. Even the exposed hilltops with their panoramic views can provide a sense of tranquillity through appreciating how rural and un-urbanised the surrounding areas truly are.

Opportunities – The undeveloped character of the area should be protected and intrusion into the most rural areas avoided.

Light pollution from any new development should be prevented or minimised through good lighting design or planting of woodland around settlement edges.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Tranquillity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Geodiversity
• Biodiversity
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Long distance trails
• National cycle network
• 877 km of rights of way
• River Wye navigation
• Open access woodland
• Historical features
• Tranquil landscape

State – Recreation is supported by the area’s 877-kilometre rights of way network (with a density of 1.7 km per km²) as well as 278 ha of open access land (0.5 percent of the NCA).

The wealth of rivers are important for fishing, with the Wye offering a major recreational corridor for canoeing, kayaking, camping and other outward bound activities.

Parts of the Herefordshire Trail, Gloucestershire Way and Wye Valley Walk long-distance footpaths pass through the area.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The River Wye is important for recreation in various forms including walking cycling, canoeing, kayaking and fishing. It is an attractive landscape that draws people from around the west Midlands, Wales and from further afield. Some recreational activities may not always be complementary and ‘honey-pot’ sites may suffer high levels of disturbance.

Recreation reconnects or maintains people’s connection with the landscape and ecosystems that support them and encourages a valuing of their surroundings.

Opportunities – Ensure that access balances recreational enjoyment with protection of biodiversity, geodiversity and historic features.

Continue to develop and implement the rights of way improvement plans for Herefordshire and for Gloucestershire.

Ensure that access to water sports and fishing on the River Wye continues in a sustainable manner, so that the impressive views and tranquillity of the river continue to be appreciated and the ecology is protected.

Ensure paths are well marked and maintained and key features, wildlife and points of interest are highlighted. Ensure that some surfaced paths are provided to enable easy access walks.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Recreation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity
• Tranquillity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• River Wye SAC
• SSSI
• Local Sites
• Local Nature Reserves
• Wye Valley AONB

State – There is one internationally designated site within the NCA – a portion of the River Wye SAC. The River Wye is an extensive river system crossing the border between England and Wales and supporting a number of important and rare species, including ‘an exceptional range’ of aquatic flora. The SAC extends over 2,200 ha, of which 270 ha lies within this NCA.

There are also 24 SSSI in the NCA, totalling over 950 ha (2 percent of the NCA area), of which, 53 percent is considered in favourable condition, 45 percent unfavourable recovering, less than1 percent unfavourable no change and 2 percent unfavourable declining.

There are over 4,300 ha of priority habitat within the NCA totalling 8 percent of the NCA area. 90 percent of this is comprised of wet woodland and lowland mixed deciduous woodland.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – River habitats are important in this NCA, the River Wye in particular. Siltation, sedimentation and diffuse pollution from agricultural run-off and domestic waste water, combined particularly with low summer water levels impact the ecological quality of the river.

Ancient and wet woodland are important habitats distributed throughout this NCA and account for the majority of the SSSI designations. Wood pasture and parklands and traditional orchards are also significant. Lack of appropriate management, changing climate and new pests and pathogens may significantly influence their structure, composition and condition.

Wet meadows and fen make up important flood plain habitat. Changes in flooding patterns and timings along with inappropriate grazing and cutting regimes may significantly impact on their condition and quality.

The neutral and calcareous grasslands in this NCA are particularly fragmented and would benefit from landscape scale management to improve their connectivity.

The unfavourable declining SSSI status is recorded on single units at four SSSI, Linton Quarry, a geological SSSI is suffering from scrub and ivy growth, while the remaining three SSSI are woodland units where overgrazing from deer is an issue.

Opportunities – Improve the ecological quality of the River Wye through schemes such as catchment sensitive farming across the extensive catchment.

Seek opportunities to reconnect the ecological network across the NCA and ensure connections with neighbouring NCAs as appropriate to the network.

Where possible, increase areas of semi- natural habitat including grassland, heath and Traditional orchard, creating extensive and connected areas of semi- natural habitat, which are managed in favourable condition, to increase the resilience of these priority habitats to climate change.

Use and expand local work on opportunity mapping to inform landscape scale projects and local development plans/decisions.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biodiversity
• Climate regulation
• Pollination
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Tranquillity
• Recreation
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Old Red Sandstone
• Old Red Sandstone hills
• River
• Geomorphology
• Limestone hills

State – The NCA has exposures of Silurian, marine shelf facies; Upper Silurian and Devonian Old Red Sandstone facies, Permian and Triassic desert facies. There are 5 geological SSSI in the NCA with Silurian and Devonian interests and there are 41 Local Geological Sites.

At Scutterdine Quarry there are exposures of Woolhope Limestone the lowest of the Silurian limestones in the type area of this rock. Fossils of some of the earliest land plants were found at Perton Roadside and Quarry.

At Linton Quarry, there is a break in succession separating the marine Silurian Wenlock Limestone from the Upper Ludlow Shales and the lowest of the terrestrial Old Red Sandstone rocks.

At Wilton Bluff are cliffs exposing the Devonian Brownstones Formation.

The Silurian rocks occurring in the Woolhope Dome and May Hill consist of alternating fossiliferous limestones and shales, the limestones standing out as wooded escarpments.

The ridges of Wenlock Limestone and Aymestry Limestone form a double scarp feature almost encircling the Woolhope inlier.

The Old Red Sandstone is found in the Wye Valley most of the way from Hereford to Tintern. Around Hereford it is represented by the Raglan Mudstone Formation dominated by easily eroded mudstones and marls. To the south of this is the St Maughans Formation which has a higher percentage of sandstone. In the vicinity of Ross-on-Wye the more resistant sandstones of the Brownstones Formation occur and are exposed clearly in the old river cliffs.

The rolling countryside of the Garway Hills is made up of Lower Devonian St Maughans Formation overlain by Brownstones Formation rocks. They were laid down on a large landmass formed when two tectonic plates of the Earth’s crust collided and pushed up the Welsh mountains.

These mountains were eroded by seasonal streams which deposited sediments in the lowlands to the south- east.

The Leadon Valley around Dymock is underlain by Raglan Mudstone Formation. The river then crosses an area of Permian and Triassic desert sandstones which stretches from Newent north to the Malvern Hills.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – There is a lack of geodiversity data for this area and an opportunity to undertake additional mapping and research work.

The area is important for the work of early geologists developing geology as a science. The underlying geodiversity shapes the topography and the soils of the area and the agricultural use that can be made of the land.

It is worth noting that most of the geological sites are in disused quarries reflecting the former importance of quarrying in the area and the value of these sites today for understanding the area’s geodiversity.

The area’s geodiversity is also important for current and future geological research as well as opportunities to learn about the shaping of the NCA. Exposure of these geological features also makes a positive contribution toward sense of place and sense of history.

The use of locally-derived stone has created a close association between the geology of the area and the distinctiveness and identity of the local buildings. Lack of access to new sources of stone limits the potential to reinforce local character in new development and to repair important existing buildings.

The Brownstones Formation, of the Garway Hills contains rare but interesting fossils that show the development of the earliest plants and animals to emerge from the seas and colonise the land.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to improve the interpretation of geological sites to increase understanding of both the geological and historical aspects at sites such as Rudge End Quarry, one of the Community Earth Heritage Champions Project Sites.

Encourage projects like this, where local people have been trained to conserve geological sites and teach others more about them, such as at Rudge End Quarry and Linton Quarry.

Ensure geological SSSI are well managed and that access to them is maintained.

Maintain the availability of local stone for building restoration through small sustainably managed local quarries.

Work with the local geodiversity partnership to designate further Local Geological Sites to assist with the understanding and enjoyment of geodiversity and to provide opportunities for recreation and volunteering.

Work with local authorities and consultants to ensure geological exposures are not obscured by development.

Support projects such as Earth Heritage Trust’s ‘One Thousand Years of Building with Stone’, which is finding out more about the stone-built heritage of the area and researching the sources of the building stone used.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Geodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity
• Recreation