6 - Solway Basin : Analysis: Ecosystem Services

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Extensive coverage of pastoral and arable agriculture
• Extensive areas of grazed salt marshes
• Intertidal habitats supporting shellfish populations
• Fertile soils
• Relatively high rainfall
• Mild climate

State – The majority of the NCA is made up of Grade 3 agricultural soils, with lower grades (4 and 5) associated with areas of wet peaty soils in valley bottoms or on peat bogs.

The higher quality Grade 2 land is restricted to areas of free draining soils on elevated ground such as around Wigton and to the east of Carlisle. In these areas arable cropping is more prevalent.

Food production in the NCA is dominated by pastoral farming systems for meat and dairy. There are also significant areas of cropped land (19 per cent of the agricultural area) mainly on mineral soils.

Mixed farming systems have generally declined in recent years as farm businesses have specialised although areas of both arable and pastoral management are widespread across the landscape.

The salt marshes of the Solway estuary are generally grazed with cattle during the summer months and sheep from the uplands during the winter. Summer grazing on the marshes by livestock, releases inland grasslands to be managed for silage production.

In the coastal zone traditional fisheries play a variable role in the rural economy. For example, shellfisheries for cockles and mussels and shrimping in the Silloth channel are based upon the harvesting of wild stocks. Both cockle and mussel fisheries vary from year to year in line with spat fall, stock establishment and growth. In recent years experimental aquaculture has developed to consider the viability of oyster and mussel production within the Solway estuary.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Generally pastoral farms are managed under an intensive regime with artificial fertilisers and slurry applications used to maximise productivity. Silage production dominates, with generally three cuts taken between April and September followed by aftermath grazing. Cattle are housed indoors for much of the winter with pastures being grazed by sheep. Slurry collected from animals housed indoors is spread throughout the year when ground conditions allow.

A heavy reliance on artificial fertilisers to enhance plant growth can deplete the levels of foodstuffs afforded to soil-dwelling fauna within grassland systems with consequences for soil structure.

The spreading of slurry at periods of high rainfall and on waterlogged or frozen ground can result in nutrients entering watercourses causing diffuse pollution.

In lower catchment areas with where the water table is closer to the surface of the ground compaction can affect soil and water quality, this is a particular risk where stock numbers are relatively high.

Recent economic drivers have seen some holdings moving away from exclusively pastoral systems. In some instances this has been coupled with a move from dairy systems to beef and sheep production. Increasing the proportion of the land given over to cropping systems has potential increase efficiency of food production where commercial crops are being produced.

If farm businesses seek to adopt a wider range of farming types then there may be opportunities to benefit provision of ecosystem services alongside these changes.

Where conversion from pasture is being considered the principles of precision farming should be followed, allowing efficient management targeted at a fine scale.

Within the pastoral system there may be opportunities for improving ecosystem services, allowing continued food provision but within a more sustainable framework. These opportunities might include, reducing the intensity of agricultural systems, where this is viable, implementing more precise faming, and focusing provision on the most suitable areas.

Opportunities – Encourage sustainable farming practices to continue the production of food and contribute to the economy while also seeking to reduce the impact on water and soil quality while providing opportunities for biodiversity and pollination.

Promote sustainable management of coastal fisheries and shell fisheries supported by a healthy environment.

Seek opportunities to link farm produce with AONB identity and develop local markets for produce.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Food provision
• Water Availability
• Regulating water quality
• Climate regulation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Woodland cover
• Three sawmills

State – The NCA contains 4,763 ha of woodland (5 per cent of the total area), of which 1,022 ha are ancient woodland composed of 474 ha ancient semi-natural and 549 ha planted ancient woodland site (PAWS). Post Second World War conifer plantations are a significant feature in some parts of the NCA, particularly north and east of Carlisle.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – There is also potential to increase the cover of native woodland by replanting with native species when non- native plantations are being harvested. Where timber is provided by native species biodiversity in general may benefit, particularly where woodland stands link areas of ancient woodland, such as along the River Lyne and Esk. A by-product of developing a timber resource of broad leaved species would be important dead wood habitat and the non- or limited intervention management associated with hard-wood timber supports a range of species.

There is potential to restore ancient woodland through conversion of plantations on ancient woodland sites. All woodland requires management to produce multiple benefits.

Woodland creation and timber production would often particularly benefit areas of river corridor, where woodland presence can help to slow runoff rates regulating flooding and soil erosion and, through shading, can lower water temperatures which allows increased oxygenation of water benefiting fish and other aquatic animals.

Because timber takes a considerable time to develop as a crop, climate change should be considered when deciding upon suitable species for planting.

Novel diseases pose a significant long term threat to timber production with diseases of elm, ash and larch affecting trees in Northern England. In some areas deer populations and non-native grey squirrel are a pest of timber production limiting regeneration and requiring management to ensure commercial outputs.

In the short term, timber could also be sourced as a by-product of the restoration of lowland raised bogs, a number of which are in poor condition because of issues that include excessive tree cover.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to increase woodland cover particularly in the eastern and southern parts of the NCA.

Seek opportunities to protect, buffer and connect surviving areas of ancient woodland.

Seek opportunities to buffer rivers.

Seek opportunities to restore native woodlands and open habitats from non-native plantations.

Promote woodland management in line with UK Forestry Standards.

Where appropriate, include suitable access provision for a range of abilities to allow visitors the opportunities to access and enjoy the natural environment.

Monitor and seek co-ordinated management of pest species and diseases.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Timber provision
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Climate regulation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Biodiversity
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Surface water catchment and groundwater aquifers

State – The majority of the NCA does not overlie any major aquifers with the exception of its south- western end where the North Cumbria Aquifer has a ‘water available’ Catchment Abstraction Management Status. Surface water resources in the NCA generally have a ‘water available status’ with the exception of the River Ellen which has ‘no water available’ (The Derwent, West Cumbria and Duddon Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, 2007; The Eden and Esk Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, 2006).

Water is abstracted from catchments upstream of the NCA for a variety of purposes, including industrial use, public water supply, farming, private water supply, hydropower and bottling.

On the Solway Plain a number of farms and other water users, such as golf courses, abstract water from underground aquifers in drift deposits which generally have a high recharge potential.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – With the exception of the Waver-Wampool catchments, which are largely self contained in the NCA, the other river systems have their catchments upstream of the NCA and cross the NCA to discharge into the Solway Firth. Influencing water availability in the catchments that cross the NCA would necessitate actions in the upper catchment NCAs including the Cumbria High Fells, Orton Fells, North Pennines and Border Moors and Forests.

In the Waver-Wampool catchment and adjoining smaller waterways both surface water and ground water aquifers are used by agriculture and amenity users. Combinations of high average rainfall, areas of free draining soils and under surface drift deposits which are also free draining give high water availability for many areas. However, climate change impacts, including more variable rainfall patterns, may affect surface water availability in the future.

In the medium to long term increased impoundment of rainwater and utilisation of underground aquifers may be of increased importance in the support of sustainable rural business including agricultural units. However, it will be important to ensure that any increased utilisation of underground aquifers does not negatively impact on surface water availability, particularly given the large number of nationally and internationally important sites in the NCA that are surface water dependent, and that utilisation remains at sustainable levels and does not lead to over abstraction. Increased reliance on local water sources would also reduce pressure on water supplies from upper catchment sources which may benefit other water users.

Opportunities – Promote sustainable use of local water sources.

Seek upper catchment measures for more consistent water availability.

Identify opportunities for more efficient water management such as rain water harvesting.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Water availability
• Food production
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity

No information available.

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Woodland cover

State – Management of land in the NCA for biomass production is increasing. Main contributors include poor quality material produced as a by-product of timber production, and material generated as part of open habitat restoration programmes.

There is potential for increased provision liked to new markets and technologies.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – At a commercial scale the existing woodland cover (5 per cent) offers relatively low potential for the provision of biomass through bringing unmanaged woodland under management or as a by-product of commercial timber production. However, in parts of the NCA there is potential to develop biomass linked to the wood-fired power stations at Lockerbie in Dumfries, which is directly linked to the NCA by the M6/A74, and at Workington. These plants provide a commercial market for woodfuel products in easy access of the NCA.

In the short term source wood would come from plantation conifers which are a locally common feature in parts of the NCA, particularly on the mineral soils north and east of Carlisle, or material from sites being restored to open habitats. However, in the medium to long term they could provide a market for other woodland types, either planted as part of woodland expansion programmes or replacing non-native plantations at harvesting.

The NCA has generally high potential yield for short rotation coppice while potential miscanthus yield is generally medium, though higher along the coastal strip and a corridor between Carlisle and Gretna.

As a biomass crop short rotation willow coppice is established south of Carlisle but biomass crops would be a new land use in many parts of this NCA with the potential for both positive and negative impacts on the NCA. For information on the potential landscape impacts of biomass plantings within the NCA, refer to the tables on the Natural England website.

Other biomass energy sources include anaerobic digestion utilising green waste and farm produce such as maize and grass silage. The recent opening of an anaerobic digestion plant near Silloth provides a local market for this produce which may provide an alternative market for farm businesses looking to diversify or change their business model.

Locally there is potential to provide biomass for domestic markets from the re-establishment of local management of underutilised woodlands for woodfuel. This approach can make use of both native and non-native wood and can be a local driver for small-scale plantings in areas which benefit a range of services such as biodiversity and climate regulation.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to link under-managed woodlands with commercial and domestic markets for woodfuel.

Seek opportunities to establish woodlands in areas such as riparian corridors and linking ancient woodlands where they provide added benefits.

Seek opportunities to support restoration of open habitats especially on the lowland raised bogs by clear felling and marketing wood.

Seek opportunities to use biomass production to support farm business diversification.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biomass energy
• Biodiversity
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Climate regulation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Tranquility

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Lowland raised bogs, salt marshes, carbon rich soils, areas of woodland and extensive estuarine mudflats

State – Soil carbon levels are generally low (0-5 per cent), reflecting the mineral soils covering 80 per cent of the NCA. Soil carbon is likely to be higher under the NCA’s 9,500 ha of coastal and flood plain grazing marsh, 2,900 ha of lowland raised bog and other wetlands and its estuarine mudflats and intertidal areas on the Solway coast with which the loamy and clayey soils of coastal flats with naturally high groundwater (10 per cent of NCA), salt marsh soils (3 per cent of NCA), raised bog peat soils (3 per cent of NCA), and fen peat soils (1 per cent of NCA) are likely to be associated.

Carbon storage is also provided by the 4,500 ha of woodland within the NCA (5 per cent of its area).

Main beneficiary – International

Analysis – The restoration and management of peat bogs has potential to reduce the loss of nationally important carbon storage capacity and reduce emissions from degraded peat soils.

It will be particularly important to conserve any areas of deep peat soils and also the peaty or organic soils of the naturally wet very acid sandy soils (1 per cent of NCA) and the loamy and clayey flood plain soils with naturally high groundwater (2 per cent of NCA).

Peat harvesting for the horticultural trade continues on some bog sites affecting the carbon balance.

Where agriculture is present on peaty soils, intensive management can often result in the reduction of stored soil carbon through peat wastage and soil erosion, particularly where land is ploughed for grassland reseeding or arable cropping. Management to reduce carbon loss includes reversion of high risk arable land to pasture and management which promotes the return of organic material to the soil.

Many of the peatland sites in the NCA are subject to restoration management, in the main driven by biodiversity considerations. This will make important contributions to climate regulation, both by securing the storage of carbon in peat and preventing its release as carbon dioxide and by enabling the sequestration of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Carbon storage will also be provided by the 4,763 ha of woodland within the NCA (5 per cent of its area).

The extensive areas of accreting salt marsh and mudflat provide a valuable store of greenhouse gases.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to maintain carbon storage and increase carbon sequestration by protecting and restoring peat bogs and other peaty soils, also by maintaining and expanding salt marshes.

Conserve organic and, in particular, peaty soils, restoring lowland raised bogs and other lowland wetlands and managing agriculture on peaty soils to minimise peat wastage and increase soil carbon levels.

Work with the farming community on the agricultural land of the coastal plain, seeking opportunities to establish sustainable grazing regimes which allow for enhanced carbon storage.

Increase woodland cover, particularly in the upland fringes of the NCA.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Climate regulation
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating coastal flooding and erosion
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Semi-natural habitats of the coastal zone

State – The Shoreline Management Plan 2 (SMP2) policy identifies the preferred approach to coastal management. This NCA forms part of ‘sub-cell 11e’ of the SMP2.

Most of the coast is rural but there are a number of small settlements along the coastline and the port town of Silloth on the outer Solway coast.

The Solway estuary has an exceptional tidal range resulting in large extents of intertidal habitats and a highly dynamic system.

North of Dubmill Point, including Morecambe Bay and the inner Solway Firth, the shoreline of this NCA is internationally designated for its coastal habitats and species.

To the north of Maryport, the coastline is within the Hadrian’s Wall World Heritage Site and sections of coast also lie within the Solway Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Environment Agency’s measures for this stretch of coast can be grouped into three categories:

• The rural open coast between Maryport and Grune Point the long term plan set out in the SMP recommends a managed realignment policy. This allows for a naturally evolving shoreline, enabling a supply of sediment to build beaches and protect urbanised areas of coast and conserves the environmental status of these areas.
• The urbanised open coast between Maryport and Grune Point. Maryport and Silloth are key centres and continued protection of these areas will remain necessary into the long term as will some smaller settlements, including Allonby. In this area the SMP policy advocates a hold the line approach.
• Inner estuary coast from Grune Point eastwards to the River Sark – The long term SMP for this area is a managed realignment policy allowing the shoreline to continue to evolve naturally as much as possible. Allowing for a combination of expected future sea level rise and increased storminess this would see salt marshes continuing to grow, the return of low-lying areas to salt marsh, and continued accretion of material in the inner estuary to act as a natural defence to inland areas.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Along the outer Solway coast there is a south to north movement of sediments with the beaches that form the coastal defence being sustained by material (both natural and industrial waste) originating in the West Cumbria Coastal Plain NCA to the south. The presence of this barrier beach has allowed the development of the agriculturally important Solway Plain and allowing it to be sustained will be important in protecting agricultural land into the future.

From Grune Point into the inner estuary this sediment source decreases in importance with increasing levels of sediment being transported to the Solway from the river networks which drain a large part of north and east Cumbria and Dumfries.

The coastline from Maryport to Grune Point is dynamic with both areas of erosion and deposition. From Silloth to Skinburness a lack of sediment has resulted in the shore being defended to limit erosion. From Skinburness northwards, sediment budgets are neutral, however, the lack of sediment arriving from the south is resulting in erosion at the base of the Grune Point which is re-depositing at its tip resulting in a changing coastline. These areas of erosion and deposition affect communities and sites of historic interest, climate change impacts are likely to increase the risk to assets in the future. Although it remains a dynamic system from Grune Point eastwards, the Solway Estuary is generally accreting.

The sand dune and salt marsh systems of the Solway coast form an important coastal defence protecting inland areas from tidal erosion and flooding. Being higher than the adjacent areas inland the sand dunes of the outer Solway act as a barrier and protect lower lying inland areas for being flooded by storm surges. In the inner estuary the salt marshes perform a similar function but at a lower tidal height, however, the vegetation structure on the marshes also performs an important function greatly reducing the tidal energy of large tides and therefore reducing the degree of erosion.

Tidal flooding is caused by storm surge and wave action during times of high tides. This is exacerbated when combined with high rainfall causing flood flows in the rivers entering the estuary. In the Solway this can be exacerbated when onshore winds prevent the estuary from fully draining during low tide cycles, increasing the volume of water in the estuary over subsequent high tides.

Because of the area’s location, aspect and low-lying geography, he Solway Estuary concentrates tidal surges and this along with the large rainwater catchment tidal flooding will be an ongoing risk in the area. This is likely to be increased by climate change impacts including sea level rise, increased storminess and increased intensity of rainfall events. In most areas this will particularly affect agricultural land but some low-lying residential areas are also at risk.

Opportunities – Identify opportunities for managed adaptation of the coast to adapt to the impacts of climate change, particularly around the inner Solway, where impacts are likely to be highest because of the combination of coastal and fluvial process at work here.

Ensure natural dynamic coastal processes can continue wherever possible along the outer Solway coast.

Maintain, extend and enhance the function of areas of coastal habitats, in particular sand dunes and salt marsh, to act as a coastal defence.

Encourage further research to understand processes to enable well informed management decisions in the future.

Ensure that coastal adaptation programmes enhance the biodiversity and landscape character of the Solway Firth.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating coastal flooding and erosion
• Climate regulation
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Semi-natural wetland habitats, including riparian buffers

State – For information regarding the current state of water quality within this NCA, refer to the Environment Agency (Draft river basin management plan maps).

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Water quality within many of the main rivers in the NCA is determined by land management practices in upper catchment NCAs, limiting the scope of measures that can be taken here to influence main river issues.

Diffuse pollution arising from livestock accessing watercourses directly and the disposal of farm waste on fields has been identified as a priority issue affecting water quality, particularly in the Lower River Waver catchment. Pressure on land to receive waste can be reduced through measures such as, reducing stocking density, timing of operations and farm infrastructure. While generally beneficial these measures would be likely to result in short-term decreases in some services such as food provision, however, impacts in the longer term would likely be neutral or positive.

Other pollution prevention measures targeting both farm infrastructure and land management would not affect short term food provision. These include covering slurry areas to reduce high nutrient runoff entering watercourses, covering yards (to prevent rain water increasing the volume of material to be stored), increasing slurry storage capacity, and better management of point source points of pollution such as around gateways. Regular soil sampling to promote a better understanding of soil nutrient status and potential is also recommended.

In recent years waste water treatment has been improved at a number of sites in the Solway Basin reducing point source discharges from domestic sources into watercourses and transitional waters. However, some issues with septic system discharges remain.

Opportunities – Work with the farming community to ensure applications of artificial fertiliser and slurry are well targeted and account for infield nutrient analysis.

Seek opportunities to reduce impacts on bathing waters by reducing diffuse pollution entering watercourses.

Support measures to reduce nutrient loading from identified point source discharges for example by covering yards, increasing slurry storage and addressing faulty septic systems.

Where possible establish soil trapping buffers of vegetation in areas of high hydraulic connectivity.

Seek opportunities to stabilise erosion-prone slopes by establishing tree cover particularly in the more upland parts of the NCA.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water quality
• Food production
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Semi-natural wetland habitats
• Riparian buffers on farmland and urban areas
• Large upland catchments of the NCAs main rivers

State – The main rivers within the NCA are grouped into two districts for the purposes of flood management – the Derwent in the west of the NCA, which includes the River Ellen, and the Solway-Tweed which includes the Waver and Wampool systems, the Eden catchment and the Esk and Sark systems (Home and Leisure, Environment Agency), (GIS, SEPA).

The River Ellen within the Derwent CFMP discharges into the Solway Firth at Maryport. It is a predominantly rural catchment and has low to moderate flood risk.

The River Eden has its headwaters in the Cumbria High Fells and Yorkshire Dales where steep gradients, high rainfall and relatively impermeable geology combine to produce large and rapid run-off. The headwaters of the Esk and Sark lie in the border uplands of both England and Scotland. In contrast to the upland parts of the river catchments, the Eden, Esk and Sark catchments within this NCA are characterised by wide flood plains which can provide storage capacity on agricultural land when rivers are high.

504 ha of farmland in the Waver-Wampool catchments is pump drained.

The NCA’s major settlement, Carlisle, is subject to significant river flood risk from the River Eden and its tributary rivers, and experienced major flooding in January 2005 and November 2009.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The rural character of much of the NCA provides potential for managing land to reduce run-off and for further flood storage although this may impact on agricultural productivity. Securing beneficial flood storage for Carlisle would involve increasing the capacity of flood plain land upstream of Carlisle to store floodwater and woodland planting to reduce peak flows.

Given the limited length of the River Eden in this NCA compared to that in the upstream Eden Valley NCA and other NCAs around the Eden headwaters many measures would need to take place in the latter area.

Locally measures such as the restoration of lowland raised bogs can reduce water loss at periods of high rainfall, with consequent benefits for surrounding agricultural land.

Much of the agricultural land in the lower parts of the Solway Basin is reclaimed from lowland wetland and flood plain habitats. With climate change impacts predicted to include more intense rainfall events flooding of low-lying land is likely to increase in future years unless adaptation measures are instigated throughout entire catchment. These could include increased capacity for flood storage in the low-lying parts of the catchment and measures to reduce peak flows from upland tributaries.

Opportunities – The rural character of much of the NCA provides potential for managing land to reduce run-off and for further flood storage although this may impact on agricultural productivity. Securing beneficial flood storage for Carlisle would involve increasing the capacity of flood plain land upstream of Carlisle to store floodwater and woodland planting to reduce peak flows.

Given the limited length of the River Eden in this NCA compared to that in the upstream Eden Valley NCA and other NCAs around the Eden headwaters many measures would need to take place in the latter area.

Locally measures such as the restoration of lowland raised bogs can reduce water loss at periods of high rainfall, with consequent benefits for surrounding agricultural land.

Much of the agricultural land in the lower parts of the Solway Basin is reclaimed from lowland wetland and flood plain habitats. With climate change impacts predicted to include more intense rainfall events flooding of low-lying land is likely to increase in future years unless adaptation measures are instigated throughout entire catchment. These could include increased capacity for flood storage in the low-lying parts of the catchment and measures to reduce peak flows from upland tributaries.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Climate regulation
• Regulating coastal flooding and erosion
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Agricultural land

State – This NCA has 12 main soilscape types:

• Slowly permeable seasonally wet slightly acid but base-rich loamy and clayey soils (49 per cent of the NCA).
• Freely draining slightly acid loamy soils (13 per cent).
• Loamy and clayey soils of coastal flats with naturally high groundwater (10 per cent).
• Slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (6 per cent).
• Freely draining slightly acid sandy soils (4 per cent).
• Slowly permeable seasonally wet acid loamy and clayey soils (4 per cent).
• Raised bog peat soils (3 per cent).
• Salt marsh soils (3 per cent).
• Freely draining flood plain soils (2 per cent).
• Loamy and clayey flood plain soils with naturally high groundwater (2 per cent).
• Fen peat soils (1 per cent).
• Naturally wet very acid sandy and loamy soils (1 per cent).

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Those soil types covering 10 per cent or more of the NCA are described below.

The lowly permeable seasonally wet slightly acid but base-rich loamy and clayey soils are the dominant soils in the NCA and are mainly managed as part of pastoral systems. These soils may suffer compaction and/or capping as they are easily damaged when wet. This can lead to increasingly poor water infiltration and diffuse pollution as a result of surface water run-off. Management measures, such as reducing trampling and less intensive cropping, that increase organic matter levels in soils can help reduce these problems.

The freely draining slightly acid loamy soils are associated with both arable and pastoral management. These soils allow water infiltration and have potential for increased organic matter levels through management interventions. They may be valuable for recharging the North Cumbria Aquifer and groundwaters more generally, requiring the maintenance of good structural conditions to aid water infiltration and the matching of nutrients to needs to prevent pollution of the underlying aquifer.

The loamy and clayey soils of coastal flats with naturally high groundwater are mainly managed as pasture. These are the soils of low-lying reclaimed land. They have a high agricultural potential but accessing this potential is dependent on protecting the soils from river and sea flooding, saline intrusion (locally some soils are saline and at risk of structural damage where drained) and locally on the continued ability to pump drain.

These soils help protect other inland soils and are increasingly under threat of loss from sea level rise. Where there is a high silt/fine sand content compaction and/or capping may be an issue which may be reduced by increasing soil organic matter content.

Agricultural use of these soils in the medium to long term will be increasingly difficult with climate change affecting sea levels and rainfall patterns, however, short term measures to protect these soils from over use now, such as reducing management intensity, may protect them as an agricultural resource in the long term.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to establish sustainable land management regimes which protect and enhance the soil resource, such as by reducing ploughing on erosion prone slopes, allowing development of organic soil content and increasing use of natural nitrogen sources such as legumes.

Protect and enhance salt marshes allowing them to capture silts and develop organic soils.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil quality
• Food production
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Climate regulation
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service – 

• Agricultural land
• Vegetation along watercourses

State – The catchments of the rivers Waver and Wampool are priority catchments for Catchment Sensitive Farming. Soil erosion is identified as an issue within these catchments, particularly due to increased maize cropping, especially on steeper slopes, and structural damage to waterlogged soils from livestock and farm vehicles.

The soils that cover 67 per cent of this NCA are not susceptible to erosion.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Of the erosion-prone soils, the freely draining slightly acid loamy soils and the freely draining slightly acid sandy soils are especially at risk where vegetation is removed or where organic matter levels are low after continuous cultivation. When left bare they are also at risk of wind erosion, especially in the case of freely draining slightly acid loamy soils. In the NCA these are the soil types most often found in association with arable cropping.

The naturally wet very acid sandy and loamy soils are also light and susceptible to wind erosion and some are also easily eroded by water if heavily trafficked or after heavy rain.

The slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage are easily compacted by machinery or livestock if accessed when wet and are prone to capping or slaking, increasing the risks of soil erosion by surface water run-off, especially on steeper slopes.

The raised bog peat soils and fen peat soils are permeable and therefore have a generally low risk of water erosion, particularly where they are managed as part of semi-natural vegetation systems. However, where they are managed as pasture they can be compacted by stock and where they are cultivated they are susceptible to loss during flooding.

Salt marsh soils may be lost through coastal erosion, including from sea level rise. At present there is a net accretion of salt marsh soils in the area fed by material delivered to the Solway estuary both by the river systems and coastal processes. Encouraging sustainable land management practices aimed at protecting soils at risk of erosion will also aid regulation of soil quality and improve water quality.

Opportunities – Along watercourses manage areas of erosion to reduce soil loss through in-field management and soft engineering.

Enhance riparian corridors by increasing riparian vegetation to reduce sediment transport rates to, and along, watercourses.

Work with the farming community to adapt to sustainable land management regimes such as stock management within areas with high soil erosion risk and where soils are prone to compaction.

Seek to reduce ploughing on erosion-prone slopes by establishing permanent pastures.

Where appropriate seek opportunities to stabilise erosion prone slopes by establishing tree cover.

Maintain function of salt marshes to limit coastal erosion by securing appropriate grazing regimes.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water quality
• Food provision
• Recreation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service – 

• Hedgerows
• Riparian grassland
• Ancient woodland
• Roadside verges
• Gardens
• Pollinating insects

State – Away from the coastal margin and lowland raised bogs his NCA on the whole offers relatively poor habitat for pollinating insects, although the areas of semi natural habitat support wildflowers provide an important source of nectar. Nectar sources may also be provided by gardens of the built up areas.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – At the current time there is low dependence on pollinator services from the agricultural sector in this NCA. However, should agricultural systems change in the future as a consequence of climate change adaptation, this would change. Pollination service will be important in the urban fringe areas where local produce is grown in allotments and gardens.

Pollinating insects are supported by a range of semi-natural habitats including coastal sand dunes and upper salt marshes, lowland raised bogs and meadows. However, away from the coast many of these are present as isolated pockets in the landscape.

Improving the condition of hedges and road verges by gapping up and replacing dead trees, and establishing management regimes that allow hedgerows and verges to flower would increase pollination resource but also improve connectivity between more extensive areas of habitat and benefit sense of place and history experience.

There are potential nectar sources from the marginal riparian habitats along the waterways and there are agri-environment scheme options designed to increase pollinator habitat for both the benefit of pollinator function and farmland biodiversity including breed birds which need insect rich habitats for their chicks.

Opportunities – Create, restore and maintain semi-natural habitats such as flood plain grazing marsh, coastal grassland and hedgerows.

Encourage sustainable farming practices such as uncropped field margins and planting of pollen and nectar mixes that will also enhance landscape character and increase landscape connectivity.

Encourage partnership working with a range of organisations to manage boundary features and road side verges so that they produce a range of flowering species and form a network of nectar sources.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Pollination
• Food production
• Pest regulation
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Flood plain grazing marsh
• Hedgerows
• Ancient woodland
• Riparian grassland
• Roadside verges

State – A variety of semi natural habitats support populations of pest-regulating species (invertebrates, birds and mammals).

Away from the coastal margin and lowland raised bogs his NCA on the whole offers relatively poor habitat for pest regulators due to the fragmented distribution of semi-natural sites.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Semi-natural habitats within the NCA are fragmented. The existing field boundary hedgerows are sparse and increasing diversity in species and structure of field margins will increase the ability for these areas to support populations of pest-regulating species.

Supporting pest regulation reduces dependency on artificial pesticides and herbicides and may become increasingly important if climate change leads to adaptation of agricultural systems.

Opportunities – Encourage sustainable farming practices to manage existing semi-natural habitats and create new areas of habitat; mainly hedgerows, woodlands, flood plain grazing marsh and riparian grassland along waterways.

Seek opportunities to improve the network of semi-natural habitats across the NCA should be sought.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Pest regulation
• Food production
• Pollination
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Views to the uplands
• Expansive and dynamic coastal and intertidal environment
• Hadrian’s Wall and other features of the built historic environment
• Open and gently rolling farmed landscape
• Geodiversity

State – The open panoramic landscape dominated by pastoral land management, framed by distant uplands and cradling the intertidal expanses of the Solway Firth provide a strong sense of place common to the whole of the NCA. This has led to part of the area being designated AONB.

Local features such as Hadrian’s Wall and the other key sites of the historic landscape, the daily movements of birds around the Solway estuary and the unique suite of wetland sites and the mixed farmland landscape with hedge bounded fields reinforce the sense of place.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – In the western part of the area, including the Solway Coast AONB, a sense of place is provided by the flat, open and largely managed pastoral and estuarine landscape. The Solway Firth is a unique and dominant feature, consisting of extensive intertidal mudflats and open salt marshes that line the river channels while the Irish Sea coast of the outer estuary is characterised by low cliffs, sand and pebble beaches with sand dunes and raised beaches. Distinctive raised peat bogs provide an element of contrast amid the intensively managed pasture which is the predominant land cover of the inland plain and coastal fringe area.

Settlements along the coast, which include Victorian coastal resorts, have followed a linear pattern while further inland dispersed nucleated settlements have grown around the core of a set of farm buildings. New large-scale development is a distinguishable feature of the Carlisle urban fringe.

Along the Solway coast the dynamic coastal environment provides a sense of inspiration and escapism with long and expansive views to the Irish Sea and across the Solway Firth to the mountains of Dumfries, added to in winter the spectacle of waders and wildfowl moving around the estuary.

Inland, to the south of the Maryport to Carlisle road and particularly in the area east of Carlisle, the character changes to one of an open upland-fringe landscape. Mixed farms gradually give way to upland pasture systems in an expansive landscape of wet pastures separated by stone walls or incised and wooded river corridors. Here feelings of inspiration and escapism are likely to be associated with the visually striking remains of forts and settlements along the course of Hadrian’s Wall which serve as a constant reminder of the historically strategic importance of the area and the long panoramic views.

The area of the Solway Firth provided the setting of Sir Walter Scott’s Redgauntlet (1824) and Dickens visited and wrote about the Solway coast in 1857. The area around Wigton also provided the setting for several novels by Melvyn Bragg who was born and raised in the town. In addition, a number of 19th-century artists were attracted to the area by the seascapes and the quality of light including Samuel Bough, Robert Salmon, Joseph Heard and, more recently, A. J. Carter Wood.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to raise awareness of the sense of place defining the coastal landscape of the Solway Coast AONB and its sensitivities.

Seek opportunities to improve understanding of features such as Hadrian’s Wall and the development of communities with reference to their historic landscapes.

Seek opportunities to maintain the character of the different landscape types (coastal, reclaimed lowlands, and upland foothills) in the NCA by maintaining local variations in vernacular architecture, field boundary type varying tree cover and key views.

Seek opportunities to restore areas of semi-natural habitat, such as lowland raised bogs, salt marshes and coastal dunes.

Seek opportunities to encourage appropriate access to natural environments, and to promote the calming and restorative effect that contact with tranquil, sensory and inspirational environments have on visitors’ health and wellbeing.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Tranquillity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Historic features including Carlisle with its city walls, cathedral and castle
• The World Heritage Site associated with Hadrian’s Wall
• Holme Cultram Abbey and Lanercost Priory
• Narrow strip fields on higher ground
• Larger fields on reclaimed and enclosed land
• Kested banks along the open coast
• Urban architecture of settlements
• Settlement patterns and site names including a number relating to Viking settlement
• Vernacular styles reflecting local geodiversity

State – Within the World Heritage Site of Hadrian’s Wall there has been little recent change in site condition although some features are at risk from coastal erosion. In most of its length in the NCA parts of the wall itself, and its associated buildings, have been lost throughout its history with the stonework incorporated into other buildings. Some sections of wall are present in the eastern parts of the NCA, but elsewhere only associated earthworks survive.

Reminders of intermittent border conflict in the 14th to 16th centuries is characterised by surviving fortified houses (including pele towers).

154 sites feature on English Heritage’s At Risk Register, including many associated with the period of Roman occupation.

Some built heritage sites, such as Holme Cultram Abbey, have been damaged in recent years and are subject to restoration programmes.

Structural landscape features, such as boundaries ditches, kests and hedges are generally stable in extent.

Main beneficiary – International

Analysis – Archaeological sites in the NCA reflect a number of different periods from the Neolithic to the Second World War, and include a high number of Heritage at Risk sites. In the area the threats to these sites are varied but include lack of knowledge of sites, coastal erosion, general neglect and lack of awareness of appropriate management, inappropriate agricultural management, and lack of traditional skills to carry out restorations.

A sense of how the land was sequentially adapted for agriculture over time is evident in the patterns of drainage ditches, hedgerows and stone-faced hedgebanks (kests) of the rural landscape.

Early settlements on higher ground were surrounded by small, and often narrow, rectilinear fields, generally bordered by hedges, except on the outer coast where stone-faced kested banks are more typical.

Larger-scale rectilinear field patterns are associated with later reclamation of low-lying wetlands and areas of land enclosure. These areas are bounded by hedges and moving inland occasional some hedgerow trees become more frequent.

A mixture of local stone has traditionally been used as building material including red sandstone, limestone, cobbles, and Welsh and Cumbrian slate, reflecting the varied history of the area, local skills and particular trade links. Of particular local note are the clay-walled buildings, known as ‘clay dabbins’ which are to be found on the Solway Plain.

These have declined greatly in recent years as cheaper building materials have become available and knowledge of how to maintain clay walled buildings has declined, for example the importance of using limewash mortar rather than concrete, as the latter corrodes the clay.

Many of the larger settlements have architecture patterns traceable to particular periods in their development, such as the Victorian seaside town of Silloth and the extensive Georgian architecture of Carlisle.

Oral and cultural traditions also provide a sense of history. In addition to place names, many of which are Viking in origin, the persistence of traditional fisheries maintains a direct cultural link to the area’s past. Of particular note is the tradition of ‘haaf netting’ for salmon in the river mouths of the Solway Firth. This technique has a Viking origin and retains Viking technology, phraseology and equipment.

Generic land management practices and the loss of local skills are a threat to the long-term maintenance of the historic assets of the area, for example clay dabbin building skills are almost lost while much field boundary maintenance no longer follows traditional management practice. In addition poorly documented sites are at threat from loss through inappropriate management, for example some roman sites are managed as part of arable systems and other sites such as some mile forts, which should be present, are undocumented.

Maintaining a strong sense of history throughout the landscape will require raising awareness both of key assets and their value and securing increased capacity to deliver appropriate management in to the future.

Opportunities – Document heritage features at risk from coastal change, and seek ex-situ preservation where appropriate.

Seek opportunities to increase heritage skills for restoration for example clay ‘dabbin’ building techniques.

Seek opportunities to increase awareness of appropriate management for heritage assets.

Seek opportunities to raise awareness of historic features themselves through improved interpretation and educational information.

Raise awareness of the links between the built heritage and the development of the landscape.

Seek opportunities to improve access links between sites of historical, cultural and natural interest to increase awareness of the relationship between different heritage assets.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• The open rural landscape of the coastal zone
• The open and expansive rural landscape of the areas along the Scottish border

State – Tranquillity remains a significant feature of this NCA despite a slight reduction in areas of undisturbed land from 81 per cent in the 1960s to 71 per cent in 2007, according to the CPRE Intrusion Map.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Characteristics of the landscape that are particularly important in conveying a sense of tranquillity are the extensive coastal landscapes that have a remote and isolated feel and are away from the major transport routes. These include the accessible beaches and sand dunes on the outer Solway coast, the open salt marsh landscape of the inner Solway with its unmodified marshes and creeks, and the wide views from the exposed Solway Basin to the Dumfries and Galloway coast, the Cumbria High Fells and across the Irish Sea.

East of the major route ways that run through the NCA around Carlisle the open rural landscape also affords high levels of tranquillity. Here the history of border conflict which reduced development through the Middle Ages has, in part, helped maintain an open rural landscape with limited settlement affording long views to the uplands and sea in an upland-fringe setting.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to protect areas providing tranquil experiences, especially the coastal zone.

Seek solutions to issues arising from disturbing recreational activities in tranquil areas.

Promote the calming and restorative effect that contact with tranquil and sensory environments has on peoples’ health and wellbeing.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Tranquillity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Rights of way network
• Hadrian’s Wall Path National Trail
• Cycleways
• Open access land including sites with dedicated access provision
• Nature reserves

State – The NCA offers a network of rights of way totalling 747 km at a density of 0.76 km per sq km.

Open access land covers 4,063 ha or 4.1 per cent of the NCA including a number of marshes along the Solway coast, a large proportion of the sand dune coast and the lowland raised bogs.

Hadrian’s Wall Path and cycle way and Cumbria Coastal Way are long-distance routes which cross the area.

This has been one of the first areas in the county to receive formal coastal access provision.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – There are almost 45 km of the Hadrian’s Wall Path and stretches of accessible coastline including sand and pebble beaches with sand dunes. There has been an increase in recreational day visitors to the Solway coast, and caravan sites and chalet developments between Silloth and Maryport are a reflection of the coast’s continuing popularity.

The open character of the sand dune coast is popular with walkers and supports ‘links’ golf courses used by both residents and visitors for recreation.

As well as open access land and public rights of way a number of public open spaces and nature reserves provide recreational access.

In some areas increased recreational use may conflict with other assets. In particular disturbance of breeding and wintering birds on the Solway estuary, and damage to sensitive sand dune habitats has been identified as an area of concern. With demand for recreational access likely to increase in the future access provision will increasingly need to take active measures to minimise the risk of impact on features that are part of the area’s sense of place.

Opportunities – Where environmental assets are sensitive to disturbance seek opportunities to manage recreational activities to minimise impacts.

Seek opportunities to provide interpretation of the landscape and its many features, enabling visitors to understand, value and enjoy its character.

Seek opportunities to enhance the network of national and regional and local footpaths, and cycle routes crossing the NCA and increase links to natural and cultural heritage sites.

Seek opportunities to enhance access to the local environment close to where people live and work, allowing local communities to benefit from the health and social rewards it affords them.

Develop opportunities to promote sustainable tourism supporting a local green economy, recognising the value to the local economy that visitors experiencing the NCAs heritage assets bring.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Recreation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Tranquillity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Extensive network of semi-natural habitats
• Lowland raised bogs and other lowland wetlands of the coastal plain
• Rivers and woodlands in the eastern part of the NCA
• Arable farmland

State – Priority habitats within the NCA include 9,500 ha of coastal and flood plain grazing marsh, 3,300 ha of salt marsh 2,900 ha of lowland raised bog and 260 ha of sand dunes as well as lesser extents of a number of other habitats. The NCA contains five SAC, one SPA, 1 Ramsar site and 8,000 ha are nationally designated as SSSI.

89 per cent of SSSI are in favourable or unfavourable recovering condition while the remainder is in unfavourable no change or declining condition.

Large extents of priority habitat are outside the designated sites.

The area supports nationally and regionally important populations of many species. Many such as natterjack toads, breeding and wintering waders, wintering wildfowl and coastal plants are associated with the designated site series.

However, others, such as farmland birds, are associated with the wider landscape. This latter group have generally declined in recent decades.

The salt marshes forming the coastal fringe of the inner Solway are among the least modified in England with complete transitions from pioneer marsh to neutral grasslands apparent in many areas. Most marshes are sheep and cattle grazed. The extent of the marshes varies with erosion and deposition caused by moving river channels, but generally the marshes are accreting material, particularly in the innermost most basin of the Solway.

The marshes are characterised in winter by large numbers of geese including the world population of Svalbard-breeding barnacle goose, and in summer by breeding gulls, terns and waders with important populations of natterjack toads present on some marshes.

The SSSI sand dunes of the outer Solway coast are generally in good condition but many other areas are under grazed or managed as arable land. These dunes are important for a number of species including natterjack toads.

Along the other Solway coast a series of exposed rocky skears, formed from eroded glacial drumlins, support important reefs of honey comb worm and mussels.

The suite of surviving lowland raised mires in the NCA, are among the most extensive and highest quality in England. As well as being a significant biodiversity asset these bogs are also a significant climate change regulator and historical record. In good condition these mires are characterised by sphagnum mosses, cotton grasses and heather and are also important for their fauna. Although much degraded from their former state they remain an important refuge for species such as white-faced darter, and large heath butterfly.

The eastern part of the NCA includes the lower reaches of the rivers Eden, Esk, Sark and their tributaries. These support a range of species including Atlantic salmon, brook, river and sea lamprey and are in many areas flanked by woodland, particularly on steeper slopes.

Much of the lower lying Solway Basin is coastal and flood plain grazing marsh. Widely modified and, as Grade 3 agricultural land, an important agricultural asset, some areas continue to be important for a range of specialist species including breeding waders but as a whole populations have decreased, and in the case of species such as the corncrake, become extinct.

Of regional importance are the arable species associated with the farmed landscape. Corn bunting, tree sparrow, grey partridge, yellow wagtail and lapwing have declined in line with the intensification of management in the late 20th century, and in the case of corn bunting to local extinction with yellow wagtail likely to follow.

Main beneficiary – International

Analysis – The area is exceptional for its biodiversity associated with a range of lowland habitats. These are important both in their own right, as key assets of local sense of place and in many cases as the support for other services.

On the salt marshes of the inner Solway the grazing regime is important for maintaining the habitat for wildfowl and wading birds, while the few ungrazed marshes tend to be more floristically diverse. Key actions such as retaining grazing systems that provide the conditions for key species and allow the natural development of the marshes, and managing recreational use, will be important in maintaining the value of the marshes into the future.

On the open outer Solway the coast is dominated by sandy beaches and sand dunes, including both mobile and fixed dune types hosting a range of communities. As well as their biodiversity these dunes provide the first line of coastal defence away from the coastal settlements and are an important recreational asset used for walking and golf. It will be important to continue to allow dynamic coastal processes, secure appropriate grazing regimes and manage recreational access to the dunes if they are to continue to fulfil this varied role as biodiversity asset, recreational asset and flood defence.

The reefs of the outer Solway provide a food resource for wintering waders, and support a commercial mussel fishery. These areas are at risk from disturbance and trampling and while they often ‘look after themselves’, raising awareness of this sensitivity may be appropriate.

Little of the surviving lowland raised mire is in favourable condition because of past degradation; however, a number of the larger mires are now being restored. Key actions to restore other sites will include the restoration of site hydrology which generally involves the removal of recently established woodland and scrub and work to block drains on the moss surface. On some sites species reintroductions may be appropriate for specialist species to facilitate recolonisation. Generally increasing awareness of the valuable role these mosses perform through appropriate access provision would also be desirable.

In the rivers of the eastern part of the NCA many actions to secure healthy aquatic biodiversity will have to take place in upstream NCAs but actions here will also be important. These include maintaining and restoring areas of riparian habitat, including woodland where appropriate, along rivers and other watercourses, targeting areas of pollution (both diffuse and point source) for better nutrient and sediment management and maintaining areas used as spawning sites by fish.

The NCA has experienced some changes in the agricultural practices of grassland management and animal husbandry which has led to a reduction in the habitat diversity of the Solway farmland.

Among the coastal and flood plain grazing marshes are some particularity rich grasslands that support marsh fritillary which has been re established following extinction in the 1990s.

Restoring the biodiversity of the low-lying wetland areas will be especially challenging requiring the bringing together of species needs with a pastoral agricultural system that has become more intensive in recent decades. Key steps will include restoration of less intensive land management regimes where feasible, developing systems that are less reliant on artificial inputs and restoring areas of seasonal flooding. To make this sustainable will need new management regimes to be economically viable in both the short and long terms.

Restoring arable biodiversity will require adaptation of arable systems to allow provision of nesting sites and year-round food supply for key bird species and the ability for arable plants to flower and set seed. This will need to be done in a way that is economically viable and will probably depend on the availability of agri-environment scheme funding.

Invasive non-native species are a threat to native species diversity in many areas with Himalayan balsam a particular issue along many watercourses, and pitcher plants on a number of lowland raised mires.

Co-ordinating management of invasive species will be critical if they are not to develop as an increased issue, with species such as Himalayan balsam (which causes water quality as well as biodiversity issues) requiring whole catchment coordination if management to be effective.

Opportunities – For all key semi-natural habitats but in particular coastal and lowland wetland habitats, seek opportunities to protect, restore and enhance their extent and quality.

Seek targeted management of key issues such as grazing on sand dunes, point sources of pollution on rivers and hydrological restoration of lowland raised bogs.

Enhance connectivity of habitats within the NCA and as a link to adjacent NCAs, particularly in the coastal zone and along rivers and other watercourses.

Seek opportunities to manage arable crops to provide year-round requirements for declining farmland birds, including provision of summer and winter food sources and nesting sites.

Seek management of lowland wetlands and pasture that delivers benefits both biodiversity and sustainable farm businesses, in particular measures that support key species such as breeding waders, and reduces nutrient loading of watercourses.

Seek opportunities to restore populations of key species such as natterjack toad.

Seek opportunities to recreate transitional habitats in the coastal zone.

Promote sustainable management of coastal fisheries and sensitive access to the coastal environment.

Seek opportunities to protect enhance, buffer and connect surviving areas of ancient woodland particularly east of Carlisle.

Ensure that biodiversity gains are secured as part of programmes aimed at improving other ecosystem services, through the development of programmes that incorporate biodiversity into design.

Use nature reserves and other local green spaces, to encourage communities to become more involved in biodiversity through recreation and volunteering activities close to where they live and work.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biodiversity
• Food provision
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating coastal flooding and erosion
• Tranquillity
• Recreation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Climate regulation
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• SSSI and Local Geological Sites
• Peat bogs
• Intertidal environment
• Local building stones

State – There are five SSSI notified for their geological interest in this NCA and 13 local geological sites (Geological Heritage Sites).

Peat-forming bogs and dynamic intertidal environments are both examples of dynamic geomorphological processes, with the former also maintaining an important palaeo-environmental record.

Generally peat bogs are in declining condition due to past exploitation and consequent degradation, though some sites are now being restored.

The functioning of the intertidal environment is relatively unmodified.

A variety of local building stones have been used to develop a local vernacular.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Of the SSSI sites, Jockie’s Syke is of particular importance for its floral and faunal fossil assemblage of Carboniferous age. This site yields the most diverse fossil assemblages in the Barren Red Measures (Middle Carboniferous) of the Canonbie Coalfield.

The extent of lowland raised bogs of the NCA makes a significant contribution to the national and international resource. Supporting opportunities to restore peatlands to re-establish their geomorphological function and as a recorder of palaeo-archaeological change in the form of pollen, plant macrofossils stretching back up to 8,000 years, will also restore their biodiversity and carbon sequestering role while providing a potential source of timber for biomass in the short term.

Past periods of lower sea levels are evidenced by a submerged forest of uncertain (although likely early Holocene c.9000 BP) date in Allonby Bay. Early Holocene raised beach deposits relate to a period of far higher sea levels during the post-glacial period, reaching a peak around 6,500 years ago during the mid-Holocene marine transgression.

The salt marshes of the Solway have an exceptional geomorphology including the finest example in Britain of terraced marshes, a consequence of creek migration, and isostatic uplift, and exceptional erosional edges where marine and fluvial processes combine forming cliffs up to 3 m high. The continued geomorphological function of salt marshes will support their biodiversity and maintain their carbon sink function.

In the intertidal zone the cobble skears that are the remains of glacial drumlins are an important feature as they form the substrate on which biogenic reefs of honeycomb worm and mussels establish. The latter are of particular significance supporting a traditional mussel fishery and are a key food resource for the wintering birds, particularly oystercatcher and knot.

A mixture of local stone has traditionally been used as building material including red sandstone, limestone, cobbles, and Welsh and Cumbrian slate.

Opportunities – Raise awareness of the geodiversity of the NCA and its links with the development and management of the landscape and the use of local building stones.

Promote and interpret the geodiversity in order to increase visitor engagement, understanding and enjoyment of the geological heritage of the area.

Restore lowland raised bogs and where possible raise awareness of their importance and provide suitable access for education.

Seek dynamic coastal environments, which are appreciated for their geomorphologic processes and sedimentary value such as unmodified salt marsh.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Geodiversity
• Food provision
• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Tranquillity
• Sense of place/inspiration