111 - Northern Thames Basin : Analysis: Ecosystem Services

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Fertile Soils
• Climate

State – 53 per cent of land use in this area is arable, mainly wheat and oilseed rape, but in addition to this there are sizable flocks of sheep grazed on the land with an estimated 18,800 breeding ewes in 2007. The most fertile soils are found in the river valleys of Hertfordshire and Essex heathlands with the majority of Grade 1 and 2 agricultural land found in the latter.

In the London Clay areas improvements in knowledge and technology over time has allowed this poorer quality soil to be used for arable but it is also used as pasture land too which is its traditional use.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Arable farming is a major industry within the area and provides a significant food resource.

Farming can have an impact on the surrounding environment especially in terms of water availability. Demands for water in the area are high due to the size of the local population so extraction of water for irrigating crops can create an added pressure on this limited resource. Crop type and the cultivation techniques may need to be modified in coming years to increase drought resilience and reduce diffuse pollution. The sandy soils of the Essex heathlands and the Essex hills are susceptible to erosion on slopes and in dry summers to wind erosion.

Climate change predictions indicate that summers will become longer and drier and this will create many challenges of farming.

Careful crop selection and cultivation may be required in response to reduced water availability and as a means of reducing soil erosion as conditions become hotter and drier.

Opportunities – Manage the landscape to retain the value of food provision, employing sustainable farming practices to increase the value of other ecosystem services including biodiversity, water availability, and soil and water quality. The uptake of agrienvironment schemes will help to achieve this.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Food provision
• Regulating soil quality
• Water availability
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Sense of place / inspiration
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Conifer plantations planted on previous lime woods in Hertfordshire
• Semi-natural woodlands (ancient, wet and deciduous woodlands)
• Recreational woodlands

State – Coniferous plantations (0.7 per cent of the area) and woodland cover as a whole makes up only 6 per cent of land use. Many of these woodlands have evidence of previous management through coppicing and pollarding going back several hundred years where the wood was used for fuel and building materials. Management today is patchy or non existent reflecting the declining trend of woodland management since the Second World War but the opportunity remains to reinstate this management.

Within the area there are two community forests; Watling and Thames Chase, which are currently managed as recreational areas for the heavily urbanised areas around London. They represent large areas of potential timber resource.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Although woodlands only make up a small proportion of the area they are one of the largest BAP priority areas and are important for wildlife and biodiversity.

Commercial timber provision is relatively small scale but the woodland area provides an important role for carbon sequestration and as a recreational resource. They also provide a sense of tranquillity and preserve the landscape character.

Timber production gives the opportunity to expand habitats and the biodiversity associated with woodlands. Coppicing in selected areas of the woodland has potential to increase the overall biodiversity of the habitat, improving conditions for many species of invertebrates, birds and mammals.

Expansion of the forest area would not only increase timber availability but also help to increase climate change regulation, as woodlands offer one of the most effective means of carbon sequestration within this landscape. If woodlands are to be expanded then it is important that other key habitats are not damaged in the process, for example planting on existing heathlands, species rich grasslands and wetlands. It is important to consider the land which is most important in terms of food provision when considering woodland expansion along with historical and geological features.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to increase woodland management and return existing woodland to active management where this will benefit timber provision, the landscape and biodiversity.

Recreational woodlands should be managed and extended to include timber provision.

Other opportunities that would support the creation or expansion of woodlands should also be secured in appropriate locations.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Timber provision
• Biodiversity
• Recreation
• Biomass energy
• Climate regulation
• Sense of place / inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• London Basin
• Chalk aquifer
• Extensive network of rivers
• Expansion of Abberton Reservoir

State – The west of the NCA is underlain by an extensive chalk outcrop of the principal London Basin Chalk aquifer, which provides the main source of water for London. Recharge of the aquifer largely occurs from the chalk outcrop as water flows underground to London from the Chilterns (Management of the London Basin Chalk Aquifer – Status Report, Environment Agency, 2012). The aquifer is extensively abstracted for public water supply, both within the NCA and Inner London.

Currently there is no groundwater available for extraction in the western section of the NCA but water is available around the River Lee and M11 areas (London Abstraction Licensing Strategy, Environment Agency, Feb 2013). In the east the groundwater is over abstracted so the central area is the only place that has surplus water available. There is an attempt to address this by the use of reservoirs and attempts to expand them where possible as has recently been done in Abberton, Essex.

With recent trends of drought weather in summer there has been increasing pressure on water systems in the area with rivers and groundwater being over abstracted which causes major problems to natural habitat and the species they support.

Due to large demand for water for this area, in extremely dry summers water has needed to be obtained from outside of the area to meet these demands. This is supplied by the rivers in the Norfolk area which feed into the Ouse Groundwater system and transfer water to the Abberton Reservoir. Therefore the requirement for water within this area also has an impact on other NCAs including the Brecklands.

Predictions of the impact of climate change on water availability expect that there will be shorter winters with increased precipitation and longer summers with reduced precipitation, therefore future planning will need to consider how water availability will be affected.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Meeting the large demand for potable and irrigation water in this area is a big challenge and one that needs to be addressed to meet the needs of an expanding population and the impacts of climate change.

The west of the NCA also provides the main source of water for Inner London through recharge to the principal aquifer, and as such land management practices within this area will have major impacts on the availability of water in the confined chalk under London.

Urban areas are continuing to expand and new housing estates are created within the more rural areas increasing the local demand for water supply. Many of these houses will have gardens further increasing demand for water especially in the hotter months when demand is already high.

Current management of arable land often involves using drains to remove excess water from fields into nearby water systems to prevent water logging. This enables nitrates and pesticides to enter the water system and also removes water that maybe needed when conditions become drier.

During drier conditions, this area cannot meet the high demand for water from its own supplies and relies on supplies being met from groundwater aquifers in Norfolk. Predicted future weather patterns indicate that summers will be longer, dry and hotter suggesting demands for water during these months will increase.

Relying on water supplies from surrounding areas will not be sustainable in the long term as the pressures on these areas for water are also likely to increase. The area needs to become more sustainable in regards to its water use but this becomes increasing difficult with continuous demands for new housing. As demand increases reservoir capacities will be insufficient requiring increased capacity. Abberton Reservoir in Essex has recently been expanded to meet growing demands and work has been accomplished without impacting significantly on the wildfowl that use this important Ramsar site.

Opportunities – Work with land managers to improve land management practices, such as increasing soil organic matter and reducing soil compaction, to improve infiltration and aid aquifer recharge.

Ensure the sustainable management of the principal chalk aquifer through catchment-wide integrated water management policies.

Secure measures to reduce water wastage in the home and commercial enterprises by using rainwater recycling measures and promotion of drought resistant planting schemes including in domestic gardens.

Work with land managers to put in place storage measures to help meet their water demands in drier periods. Similar measures should be encouraged on recreational sites such as golf courses.

Measures to reduce wind evaporation on fields particularly in drier periods, such as the through planting of hedgerows, should be encouraged.

Promote the planting of drought tolerant crops.

Encourage land managers to allow natural flooding to help restore wetlands helping to store water in wetter periods; increasing water availability during drier months while limiting over abstraction.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Water availability
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Orchards with heritage species of fruit trees including rare species.
• Local breeds of pig, cattle, sheep, goat, horse and pony.

State – Traditional orchards are still in existence but in a poor state and are declining. The decline in Essex has been significant. There are many local varieties still grown including a very old variety dating back to 1785 (the D’Arcy Spice apple).

There are rare breeds of cattle, pig, sheep, goat, horse and pony that are still likely to be found in small numbers.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Many orchards have been neglected or destroyed, but efforts are underway to protect these habitats and prevent further losses. The preservation of the different types of orchard fruit is important to retain the genetic diversity of food crops. Increased genetic diversity affords an increased ability to respond to climate change and disease.

Some varieties of apples are still sold in the area but on a small scale such as in farm shops or markets.

Opportunities – Return existing orchards into active management.

Establish new orchards using traditional varieties of fruit trees and encourage local markets for the produce.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Genetic diversity
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Sense of history
• Sense of place /inspiration
• Pollination

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Woodland management (coppicing / felling)
• Growth of miscanthus
• Short rotation coppice (SRC) using willow and poplar

State – Woodlands only make up 6 per cent of the area with an additional 12 per cent of community woodland.

Management of the woodlands in the area is low and has rapidly decreased since the end of the Second World War.

In 2013 there was only one area in Hertfordshire growing energy crops.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – In terms of woodlands being used asca biomass resource the current area is relatively small and under-managed but there is potential to increase capacity provided management enhances the health of the woodland habitat.

The majority of this area has been highlighted as having a high yield potential for both miscanthus and SRC but a balance has to be struck between the need for this crop and the need for food production. It is also important that existing habitats are not destroyed to meet the demand for energy.

Opportunities – Secure the management of existing woodlands and establish the opportunity for woodland creation in appropriate locations for biomass production.

Evaluate the potential to grow miscanthus and the short rotation coppice as sustainable source of biomass where appropriate.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Biomass energy
• Biodiversity
• Regulating soil erosion
• Pollination
• Regulating water quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Field boundaries – hedgerows
• Woodland
• Heathlands (small contribution)
• Soils (limited contribution)
• Unimproved grasslands

State – Over 50 per cent of this area is arable land which is not the optimal form of land management for carbon sequestration (storage) as soil disturbance often results in the release of carbon stored in the substrate.

The presence of hedgerows and woodlands in the area helps as these habitats are good carbon stores. Heathland and grassland habitats also help with carbon sequestration and storage.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Woodland habitat can perform an important role in carbon sequestration but the woodland habitats in this area are currently small in extent so their impacts in reducing carbon levels are limited. Hedgerows are also a feature of the landscape but over time many have been removed to make way for larger fields as farming practices have changed.

The most extensive land use in the area is agriculture. It is important that the arable cultivation techniques employed do not deplete soil carbon levels further. Careful cropping techniques, the use of cover crops and measures to actively increase the organic content of soils could enable increased carbon sequestration within some areas of the NCA.

The relatively high levels of organic matter in the soils within wetland habitats also helps with carbon storage but again these habitats only make up a very small part of the overall landscape.

Opportunities – Support woodland and tree planting and enhance the hedgerow network to enhance landscape character and improve carbon sequestration by for instance expanding woodland edges into improved grassland and reinstating hedgerow field boundaries.

Promote the planting of trees and hedgerows within new developments.

Encourage measures to reduce tillage and increase the planting of cover crops and the organic matter within the soil.

Secure opportunities to improve heath land and grassland management by reducing cutting and over grazing.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Climate regulation
• Food provision
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity
• Biomass energy
• Water availability
• Sense of place / inspiration
• Sense of history
• Geodiversity

No information available.

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Rivers
• Wetlands
• Woodland
• Hedgerows

State – For information regarding the current state of water quality within this NCA, refer to the Environment Agency (Draft river basin management plan maps).

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – High population densities within the NCA put pressure on water quality through discharges from sewage treatment works and diffuse pollution. Growth and regeneration of urban areas will be increasing demands on the water resource but also present an opportunity to make improvements to the water environment.

Diffuse pollution from agricultural areas is also a major pressure on the water environment in the NCA.

Aquifers supply 40 per cent of the drinking water and supply flow for rivers and wetlands within the area. Safeguarding supplies and the environment by protecting groundwater from pollution is essential.

The majority of rivers are classified as having moderate ecological status or lower mainly due to high levels of phosphates effecting the biological systems within the river. High levels of phosphates can have detrimental impacts on the ecology of rivers and other water bodies by reducing the amount of available oxygen within the water which in turn can reduce the diversity of aquatic plants, invertebrates and fish.

There are chemical failures in local rivers which are likely to be related to run-off from roads in the urban areas. The loss of morphology within many urban rivers has reduced natural processes that would otherwise help to maintain and improve water quality. The loss of morphology and increased pollution impacts on the numbers of fish and invertebrates.

Efforts are being made to reduce the levels of agricultural fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides and the introduction of new technology, such as precision farming, will further help to reduce levels of chemicals entering the water system.

Semi-natural habitats play an important role in filtering surface water run-off before it enters watercourses. Reed beds and wetlands are good examples but tree lines, woodlands, hedgerows and grass verges will also play a part in reducing the levels of chemicals that can enter water systems. Many of these habitats are only found in small fragments across the area and are absent from many locations where they would have the most value.

Opportunities – Implement catchment-wide water management plans to ensure a coordinated approach to reducing the impacts of pollution.

Ensure local development plans include the sustainable management of water resources and promote measures to reduce adverse impacts on water quality in the future, including the use of sustainable drainage systems (SuDS), sewage treatment options and reducing nutrients from diffuse pollution.

Reinstate natural water filters such as reed beds, tree lines, hedgerows and grass verges to help filter surface water run-off from roads, gardens arable fields and other areas before surface run-off enters watercourses.

Improve the morphological features of the rivers, including urban rivers to help reinstate natural biological processes to help maintain and improve surface water quality.

Work with land managers to continue to use new technologies and techniques in farming that reduce the levels of fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides used on land which will not only reduce the levels of contaminated runoff entering water systems, including the principal aquifer, but also improve the productivity of farming.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Regulating water quality
• Biodiversity
• Food provision
• Regulating soil quality
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Flood plains
• Wetlands
• Woodlands
• Grasslands
• Rivers
• Reservoirs

State – Much of the Essex area of the NCA is at low risk from flooding, however there are some parts that are at higher risk.

The rivers Colne, Chelmer and Crouch present the greatest flood risk in the area and will mainly affect Colchester, Maldon, Basildon and Wickford. There is also the possibility that the two large reservoirs in the area (Abberton Reservoir and Hanningfield Reservoir) could have future flood risk potential and could affect surrounding areas.

In the London and Hertfordshire areas of the NCA the main risk of flooding arises from the River Lee. The levels of development on the flood plain are very high in the North London area, which will increase the risk of flooding of properties in the area. This risk reduces in the Hertfordshire area but some risk still exists.

The urban areas in the NCA face increased surface water flooding risk. The areas most likely affected are London and its suburbs, Southend and Thurrock. There is also potential for coastal flooding in some areas as sea levels rise; the places most likely to be affected are Harwich, Rayleigh and Southend.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The rivers in the area that are most likely to present flood risk are the rivers Lee, Colne, Chelmer and Crouch. Areas close to these rivers have an increased risk of flood damage to land and property and this problem is increased in urban areas especially when the flood plain has been heavily developed. London areas are most effected by flood plain development and it has been accepted that previous measures to reduce risk of flooding (straightening of rivers) is no longer suitable and cannot mitigate the effects of climate change.

Upper reaches of the Lee in Hertfordshire also have an increased risk of flooding as the flood plains here are wide and flat so properties nearby face increased flood risk.

There are many reservoirs in the area and these may help to alleviate some pressure by storing water during high rainfall events. There is only a small area of the NCA which is near the coast. Parts of Harwich, Rayleigh and Southend are near enough to put them in potential danger of increased flooding if sea levels continue to rise.

Opportunities – Opportunities to reinstate areas of active flood plain through development designed to adapt to and deal with current and future flood risk, should be secured when developments occur in or close to flood plain areas.

Secure opportunities to expand or create areas of semi-natural habitats such as woodlands (particularly wet woodlands), flood plain grazing marshes, reed beds and grasslands to increase soil infiltration helping to alleviate flood risk.

Consider the use of existing and newly created semi natural habitat to act as buffer zones to protect existing development and important arable land from flooding.

Flood storage schemes may need to be put in place where flood defences will be difficult to implement and opportunities to incorporate constructed storage (reservoirs) with natural storage (seminatural habitats) should be explored and secured.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Regulating water flow
• Water availability
• Regulating water quality
• Pollination
• Pest regulation
• Sense of place / inspiration
• Sense of history
• Tranquillity
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Agricultural land
• Semi-natural habitats

State – There are 7 main soilscape types and these are; slowly permeable seasonally wet, slightly acidic but base rich loamy and clayey soils (48 per cent of NCA); slightly acidic loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (19 per cent); freely draining slightly acidic loamy soils (14 per cent); loamy soils with naturally high groundwater (7 per cent); slowly permeable seasonally wet acid loamy and clayey soils (4 per cent); lime rich loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (2 per cent); and loamy and clayey flood plain soils with naturally high groundwater (2 per cent).

The most common soil type that makes up 48 per cent of soils in the area could suffer from compaction and capping as it is more prone to damage when wet. The second most common soil type that makes up 19 per cent of soil is at risk from poaching from livestock and compaction from heavy machinery and top soil of weak structure can easily be damaged so activities should be carefully timed to prevent compaction within the soil.

The soil type that makes up 14 per cent of the NCA has the potential to increase its organic matter content with the correct management.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – The main soils in this area are affected by compaction in wet conditions that can result in poor water infiltration into the soil and increased overland runoff, which is likely to increase diffuse pollution into associated water courses.

The acid loamy and clayey soils (19 per cent) are easily poached by animals and compacted by machinery so careful management of these soils is required to prevent damage.

Slightly acidic loamy soils (14 per cent) are an important resource as there is potential to increase organic matter levels which can help with the recharge of the underlying chalk aquifer helping to improve water availability in this NCA and beyond.

Reduced organic matter is the main risk to all soil types. Increasing organic matter in soils will afford an increased ability to store nutrients and water and will increase storage of carbon. Reducing the effects of compaction of soil will help to solve many problems faced by land management at present and in the future.

Careful management of soils is needed to prevent compaction, which not only damages the structure of the soil, but also prevents water infiltrating the soil, resulting in increased rates of overland run-off entering water courses.

Management practices could be adapted to help improve soil quality, which could help to increase agricultural yields in the long term.

Opportunities – There are opportunities to change practices and manage the soil in a way that increases organic matter.

Seek to reduce compaction of soil, by using agricultural equipment with a low ground pressure during periods of wet weather and managing livestock to reduce the risk of poaching.

Consider establishing continuous vegetation cover where high risk crops are currently cultivated in high risk locations where these are associated with high rates of diffuse pollution.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Regulating soil quality
• Food provision
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water quality
• Water availability
• Climate regulation
• Geodiversity
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place / inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Semi-natural habitats
• Hedgerows and trees
• Woodlands

State – Most soils in this area are at low risk of erosion but some soil types (21 per cent) are affected by compaction in wet conditions that can damage the soils structure, reducing the amount of water that can be absorbed by the soil. This can lead to increased overland run-off that can lead to erosion of the soils surface. The soils found in the Essex heathlands and Essex hills and ridges are at risk or erosion on sloping land, especially when left exposed, and this risk increases in soils with low organic matter.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – In general, the soils in the area are at low risk of erosion. Where they are at risk is where the soil is of the best quality and of value for food production. Exposed soils are at risk of water and wind erosion and reduced organic matter content.

Poaching can be an issue in some areas resulting in direct erosion and compaction which damages the soils structure and subsequent erosion. Heavy machinery could also be an issue in this instance requiring effective management to reduce damage.

Wind erosion may have an effect in some instances where the soil is comprised of fine material and unsheltered by trees and hedgerows.

Opportunities – Water erosion can be reduced by increasing organic matter in the soil and ensuring that bare soils are kept to a minimum.

Areas affected by wind erosion will benefit from the introduction of hedgerows and tree lines to act as wind breaks. This can also help with water erosion by reducing the effects of overland run-off.

Careful management decisions should be made, especially during wet conditions, to reduce the effects of compaction from livestock and heavy machinery.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Regulating soil quality
• Food provision
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Semi-natural habitats especially hedgerows and grasslands/field margins
• Orchards

State – At present this area has the required habitats to aid pollinators but the areas are very small and fragmented so this limits the numbers of pollinators that can be supported.

Pollination is needed for oilseed rape and this is one of the main crop types grown in the area so pollination is a big part of the NCA as more than 50 per cent of the area is agricultural land and a large percentage of this is arable.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – The semi-natural habitats required for pollinators are small and fragmented throughout the landscape but pollinators could help to improve the yield of some crops grown here. It is likely that land managers have compensated for this by importing bumblebees commercially; however, stricter regulation on the introduction of species from outside the UK is likely to make this practice more difficult in the future.

Practices that encourage pollinators have been adopted by many and with the help of agri-environmental schemes many landowners have been able to put aside land and manage it in a way that benefits wildlife in general. If the level of pollinators is to increase these steps need to go further by encouraging more landowners to set less valuable land aside to be given over to field margins and hedgerow planting and connecting habitats to expand the species range. This could possibly help to reduce the cost of food production by reducing or eliminating the need to import pollinators and could also help to expand the success of orchards.

The extent of semi-natural habitat within the urban areas of the NCA is likely to have a limiting effect on the range and number of pollinating insects although domestic gardens will support larger numbers.

Opportunities – Improvements could be made to semi-natural habitats by expanding their range where possible and connecting habitats by creating corridors that allow pollinators to expand their numbers and range.

To engage more with landowners and give help and advice on the agrienvironmental schemes available which can help to compensate for land lost to the creation of field margins and hedgerows.

Help inform the wider community of the benefits that pollinators can offer in terms of food provision.

Promote the importance of creating better habitats in urban areas by encouraging local authorities to adapt how they manage public land such as roadside verges, parks and other green areas, too allow areas to develop into grassland and wildflower areas, increasing the wildlife value of parklands while benefiting many pollinating invertebrates.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Pollination
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Pest regulation
• Sense of place / inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Semi-natural habitats

State – As with pollinators this area has the required habitats to support the necessary invertebrate species but the habitats are small and fragmented limiting the density of the species that can live in the NCA as a whole.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – There are a variety of predatory invertebrate species that are found throughout the area which could help to limit the need for chemical control measures if found in greater numbers.

As with the pollinators there are opportunities for landowners to adopt more sensitive management of land to encourage predatory invertebrates to expand their range and increase their populations. Measures could include putting aside less productive land to become grasslands/wildflower meadows and creating more field margins and hedgerows as boundary features. Many landowners already do this throughout the area but there is potential to expand this practice.

The urban environment could also play its part in the creation of suitable habitats such as changing management regimes of roadside verges, parks and other green areas to provide for the needs of invertebrates and other wildlife, allowing them to use the urban environment to disperse throughout the landscape.

Opportunities – Secure opportunities to expand or create suitable semi-natural habitats and effectively manage to ensure they remain viable to support the species required, such as maintaining effective grasslands using suitable levels of grazing.

Engage with local landowners and promote the benefits of agri-environmental schemes.

Encourage local authorities in urban areas to adapt the management plans for public green areas, such as parks and grass verges, to be less intensive so suitable habitats for predator species can be available in these areas so their range and numbers can increase.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Pest regulation
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Pollination
• Sense of place / inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Mixtures of urban area surrounded by an open undeveloped landscape
• Ancient woodland throughout the Hertfordshire plateaux and Essex wooded hills and ridges
• Grasslands, heathlands and fens
• Inspirational landscape of natural beauty, such as Dedham Vale

State – This area has a diverse appeal as it has a strong mixture of urban and rural. North and North West London forms part of this NCA which is much urbanised and heavily populated. Further north from London into Hertfordshire and Essex, the area becomes increasingly rural with development much more dispersed and patchy intersected by agricultural land, woodlands and hedgerows.

The area has some large woodlands and important ancient woodland, with woodland a key feature of ridgelines and hills in parts, giving a strongly wooded character.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The mix or urban and rural is a key part of the character of this area and is a balance which needs to be managed as pressure for increased settlement and infrastructure development is high.

Appropriately managing the woodland for its contribution to the landscape, but also for the habitats it provides and the recreation resource it offers the large surrounding population is important in this area. Woodland can be used to screen urban edges and offer green infrastructure links to the surrounding countryside. Ensuring the quality of the large areas of ancient woodland is maintained while accommodating recreation use will help protect this resource for the future.

This landscape is highly valued by the surrounding urban populations for the opportunity to escape the hustle and bustle of London. Residents enjoy the ability to escape to the countryside or the coast, while not having to travel far from home.

The diversity and quality of the rural landscape in close proximity to London, is strongly desired and needs to be retained if the area is to keep its character.

Opportunities – Maintain and enhance the balance of the urban and rural landscapes ensuring the character of the area’s settlements is maintained in the rural areas and urban encroachment kept to a minimum.

Conserve and enhance the rural urban fringe through the spatial planning process and through good design in new development.

Protect and enhance the wooded character of the area, creating new woodland as appropriate on the urban fringes to screen settlement edges and provide habitat and green infrastructure benefits.

Provide good recreational infrastructure while also protecting and managing habitats in the areas of ancient woodland to ensure the local community can enjoy the areas without detriment to the important wildlife.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Sense of place / inspiration
• Recreation
• Tranquillity
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Long settlement history including many Roman connections
• Traditional orchards and ancient woodland
• Archaeology

State – This area has a rich heritage and has historical evidence of settlement in the Hertfordshire, Essex heathlands and London areas dating back to the prehistoric along with palaeoenvironmental, Palaeolithic and archaeological evidence.

There is a long settlement history in this NCA, being close to the City of London towns such as St Albans and Welwyn in Hertfordshire can trace their origins to the Roman occupation of the area and the NCA includes Colchester, the Roman capital city of Britain.

The area has a strong natural history, evident within the remnants of traditional orchards and local fruit varieties and the ancient woodlands, such as Broxbourne Wood and Epping Forest, with their beautiful displays of bluebells and other wildflowers.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – The presence of the City of London in close proximity to the NCA has helped shape the area as it is today. From the development of parklands and large country houses in Hertfordshire, that were developed by rich London merchants , to the criss-cross of roads, rail and waterways that have been created to connect London to surrounding areas and the country as a whole.

The strong Roman history of the area is evidenced by the presence of Colchester and its castle which started out as a Roman temple and was rebuilt as the Norman castle seen today.

The historical settlement pattern of the area remains in some places, which consist of dispersed hamlets and villages surrounded by farmland and farmsteads.

Traditional 18th century hedgerow boundary markers still exist but have diminished extensively since the Second World War.

There are more recent Second World War landmarks such as the many pillboxes scattered around the areas near the coast.

Historical features are important visitor attractions and could help improve the local economy. Care should be taken that the attractions that bring people to the area are not destroyed in expansion projects to accommodate the influx of new residents and visitors.

Opportunities – Protect and promote the strong Roman history in the area, offering education and interpretation to highlight the importance of the area in Roman Britain.

Promote the recreation and tourism potential available in the area which allows the local community and visitors to interact with centuries of local history. Use this resource to improve the local economy without damaging the character of the area.

Manage the orchards and ancient woodland in good condition to ensure this resource, which has provided many generations with food and fuel, is maintained into the future.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Sense of history
• Sense of place / inspiration
• Biodiversity
• Tranquillity
• Recreation
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Semi-natural habitats
• Well-wooded areas
• Dispersed settlement patterns
• Agricultural landscape

State – According to the CPRE intrusion map (2007) this area is 32 per cent urban and 55 per cent disturbed leaving only 13 per cent of the area undisturbed. Owing to this, areas around large settlements have low levels of tranquillity but surrounding areas where agricultural land, woodlands and other semi-natural habitats dominate the tranquillity levels increase.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Inward migration to the area has increased housing, infrastructure and in urban sprawl supported by improved transport links to London. This in turn has reduced the tranquillity of the area over time.

Remote areas remain and the presence of woodland, especially the wooded hills and areas of ancient woodland, along with wider areas of agricultural use, has retained some degree of tranquillity

Opportunities – Ensure the dispersed settlement character in some parts of the NCA is retained through careful design and location of new development.

Promote the creation of woodland, hedgerows and other semi-natural habitats to help integrate future developments and infrastructure into the surrounding landscape.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Tranquillity
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place /inspiration
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Country parks
• Historical sites
• Nature reserves
• Open access areas
• Strategic green infrastructure and walk networks
• Public parks
• Woodlands – Woods for People

State – This area has 3,084 km of public rights of way (at a density of 1.2 km per km²) but only 5 per cent of the NCA is classified as publically accessible.

The largest areas of publicly accessible land are Woods for People (3 per cent of the NCA), land within the Forestry Commission Walkers Welcome Grants (2 per cent), Countryside Right of Way Act Section 15 land (1 per cent-3,368 ha), country parks (1 per cent-3,261 ha) and Local Nature Reserves (1 per cent-1,907 ha).

The designated sites allow people access to rare wildlife such as bats, water voles, otters, bluebells and various orchids as well other wildlife such as badgers, foxes and various types of birds, butterflies and invertebrate to enhance the visitor experience of wildlife and the natural environment.

The reservoirs, canals and rivers are wellused for recreation and provide good green infrastructure links from urban to rural areas.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – With such a large adjacent urban population, the access and recreation assets of this NCA are highly valued and highly used. There is a need to manage the resources so they do not become degraded, at the same time as promoting the opportunities to ensure they bring maximum benefit to a large number of people.

The presence of many nature reserves and country parks offers the chance for urban populations to easily access open green space, bringing health and recreation benefits.

Footpaths and trails are limited and dispersed but are found throughout the area.

The All London Green Grid initiative contains a series of frameworks designed to deliver and improve strategic and local green infrastructure.

Opportunities – Improve access to the rural environment through new green infrastructure links, ensuring this is considered in the planning process and in any large scale conservation projects.

Implement measure that engage adults and children in the design and use of local greenspace improve understanding of the natural environment and provide volunteering opportunities to increase experience with the natural world.

Maximise opportunities through development and regeneration to help implement the All London Green Grid Frameworks.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity
• Tranquillity
• Sense of place /inspiration
• Pollination
• Pest regulation
• Climate regulation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Semi-natural habitats / BAP priority habitats
• Orchards
• Hedgerows
• Agricultural land

State – There are 14,593 ha of BAP priority habitats within the NCA which equates to almost 6 per cent of the land area.

There are also 6 Ramsar sites, 6 Special Protection Areas, 3 Special Areas of Conservation, 2 National Nature Reserves and 72 SSSI (please note that some sites have more than 1 designation so there is some double counting within these figures).

Many of the BAP habitats in the NCA are wetland sites so water is a necessity for these sites to remain viable.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – There is a range of habitat types supporting a modest number of species. A significant barrier to increasing biodiversity is that the semi-natural habitats are small in extent, fragmented and under continuous threat of being destroyed through inappropriate management or the continued need to accommodate new development in the area.

Appropriate active management of remaining semi-natural habitats should be accompanied by measures to increase the extent of key habitats and their overall connectivity within the landscape. This could enable healthy populations of important wildlife including dormice, bats, water voles and great crested newts to be retained within the landscape Some work is currently underway to apply a landscape scale approach to habitat connectivity and protection from outside pressures, such as development, pollution and water resources, connecting sites and enabling greater species dispersal.

In some agricultural settings farmers are helping to improve biodiversity by managing land to create semi-natural habitats and allowing hedgerows and margins along field edges to remain uncultivated. These efforts are usually possible through the establishment of agri-environmental schemes that can compensate landowners for the loss of income associated with more intensive farming techniques. These measures provide a vital role in supporting biodiversity on a landscape scale.

Opportunities – Enhance, connect and expand semi-natural habitats to help improve biodiversity and make it more resililient to pressures for change.

Continue to engage farmers in agri-environmental schemes, which will allow landowners to receive funding to continue to manage their land in an environmentally sensitive way.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Biodiversity
• Sense of place / inspiration
• Sense of history
• Pollination
• Pest regulation
• Food provision
• Climate regulation
• Genetic diversity
• Tranquillity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service

• Geological SSSI
• Local Geological Sites
• Quaternary sediments allowing study into the formation of the Thames

State – There are 20 Geological SSSI with just over half in favourable condition and 3 Local geological Sites.

These sites have been selected for their importance to the study of the formation of the local area and in some cases they contain rare examples of geological formation of regional and national importance.

Many of these sites are in unfavourable condition but none are declining.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – There is high demand for minerals nationally and some sites are still usebeing extracted. Many are now disused.

Much of the evidence found relates to the formation of the local area, particularly the movement of the Thames south to its current location; some of the stratographical evidence has not only regional but national significance too. Much of the evidence relates to the Pleistocene period.

Continuous pollen records have been found that give insight into periods of formation history as well as mammal, invertebrate and plant remains some of which are now extinct and others that are no longer native to Britain. This gives an insight into changes over time and how the local area and country as a whole has evolved.

The most important sites in the area are now protected but many are listed as being in unfavourable condition. Many of these sites are still involved in ongoing research so it is important that they are preserved.

Opportunities – Ensure sensitive practices are employed in the ongoing extraction of mineral resources from the area.

Work to retain the value of the areas geological resource, promoting access and interpretation of important geological sites to increase understanding of the local history and geology of the area.

Principal services offered by opportunities

• Geodiversity.
• Recreation
• Sense of place /inspiration
• Sense of history