10 - North Pennines : Description

Physical and functional links to other National Character Areas

The North Pennines National Character Area (NCA) lies at the northern end of the Pennines and forms a distinct area of upland moorland and dales, separated by the Tyne Gap from the uplands of the Border Moors and Forests NCA. To the south lie the Yorkshire Dales, and to the west lies the broad valley of the river Eden. The upland fringe landscapes of the Durham Coalfield Pennine Fringe NCA and the Pennine Dales Fringe NCA lie to the east. The western half of the area is characterised by massive moorland summits: in clear conditions, the views to the west (over the Eden Valley to the Cumbria High Fells NCA) and to the east (across the dales) are dramatic. The scarp along the west side also forms a striking backdrop to views from the Eden Valley.

Several major rivers rise in this upland block and flow outwards, to either the North Sea or the Irish Sea. The South Tyne, East and West Allen rivers, and Devil’s Water, in the north and north-east of the area, flow north into the Tyne Gap. Here they join the River Tyne, which flows eastwards to the North Sea. The River Wear rises near the centre of the area, and flows eastwards through the Durham Coalfield Pennine Fringe NCA and the Tyne and Wear Lowlands NCA. The Tees flows in a south-easterly direction, crossing the Tees Lowlands NCA to eventually flow into the North Sea at Teesside. Shorter tributaries flow west, down into the Eden, which eventually flows into the Irish Sea. The impervious rocks and high rainfall make this an important area for water capture, with rivers and reservoirs supplying clean water to conurbations and industries downstream. Land management practices here are also important in regulating water flow and water quality downstream – this is particularly significant for the River Eden, which is of international importance for its wildlife.

The extensive areas of semi-natural moorland and grassland habitats form important links between the adjoining uplands to the north and south, with their similar habitats. The few roads and settlements are contained within valleys, reinforcing the area’s sense of remoteness and tranquillity.

The North Pennines today

The North Pennines are characterised by some of the highest and wildest moorland summits in England, with the highest peaks of Mickle Fell, Knock Fell, Great Dun Fell and Cross Fell in the west reaching up to 893 m in altitude. These uplands are incised by relatively broad dales, creating a series of flat- topped ridges of open moorlands with panoramic views. A steep escarpment forms the western boundary, creating a striking backdrop to views from the Eden valley, while also providing dramatic views westwards to the Cumbria High Fells. The spectacular and evident geological interest of the area led to the North Pennines AONB being awarded the status of UNESCO European Geopark in 2003 and then Global Geopark in 2004.

Several major rivers, such as the South Tyne, East Allen, West Allen, Wear, Tees and tributaries of the Eden, rise in the upland block, flowing down the dales – both to the north and east – to the North Sea, and to the Irish Sea in the west. These clean, fast-flowing rivers support populations of otter, water vole, dipper, Atlantic salmon, brown trout and white-clawed crayfish. Where rivers cross the hard rocks of the Whin Sill they form dramatic waterfalls, such as at High Force, Low Force and Cauldron Snout. Erosion of limestone by water has, over time, created cave systems – some of which have been designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) for their geological features, notably at Fairy Hole Caves and Knock Fell Caverns. The relatively high rainfall, combined with impervious rocks, makes the area very important as a water catchment. Several large reservoirs provide water for both domestic and industrial use to the conurbations of Carlisle, Tyneside, Wearside and Teesside.

These uplands are subject to a severe climate, with high rainfall, low temperatures and strong winds in both winter and summer. The extensive moorlands, with their lack of built structures, offer an experience of wildness and remoteness found in few other places in England.

Peaty soils cover extensive areas of the higher ground, and give rise to internationally important mosaics of moorland vegetation. Most of the higher land (46 per cent) is designated as a Special Protection Area (SPA) for its populations of hen harrier, merlin, peregrine, golden plover, curlew and dunlin. Other characteristic birds include red grouse and ring ouzel, with 80 per cent of England’s black grouse found here. Montane heath can be found on the summits, along with prostrate shrubs, mosses and lichens. Wet heath, mires and blanket bog, dominated by heather, sphagnum and cotton grass, have developed elsewhere on the cool, wet plateau – especially along the west side. In the drier east there are mosaics of dry heath habitats, with heather and bilberry. The moorlands are managed for both sheep rearing and grouse shooting. Livestock also graze the extensive areas of acid grassland, and the allotments and rough grasslands on the hillsides. With their mosaics of wet and rushy pastures, these provide feeding, nesting and roosting areas for black grouse and upland waders such as lapwing, redshank and snipe.

Where limestone is close to the surface, as in the south-west of the area, there are species-rich calcareous grasslands with base-rich flushes. Some areas comprise important assemblages of arctic-alpine species, probably surviving from the glacial period. The ‘sugar limestone’ grasslands of Upper Teesdale are one of the most botanically rich areas in upland Britain. They boast their own internationally recognised ‘Teesdale Assemblage’, which includes Teesdale sandwort, Teesdale violet, alpine meadow rue, bird’s eye primrose, spring gentian and alpine bartsia.

The broad dales, with their strong patterns formed by fields enclosed by drystone walls, and dispersed farmsteads and field barns built of local stone, contrast with the open uplands. Farm systems are based on sheep and cattle rearing on in-bye pastures and meadows in the valleys, supplemented with grazing rights on the commons (the moorlands).

The long tradition of livestock rearing has given rise to a range of species- rich pastures and meadows, and wet pastures, with over 40 per cent of the UK’s upland hay meadows found here. Some of these hay meadows contain characteristic northern plants such as globeflower, wood crane’s-bill, melancholy thistle and lady’s mantle. The grasslands along the verges of minor roads and tracks, and alongside watercourses, are also often full of flowering plants, making them important assets for biodiversity as well as for the enjoyment of visitors.

The lower reaches of the dales are broader, with more hedges and field boundary trees. Woodlands are largely restricted to river banks and the steeper slopes of valleys and gills, in particular along the Tees, South Tyne, Derwent, West Allen and East Allen rivers, where some are of ancient origin. Upland ash woodlands occur on limestones, while fragments of upland  oak woodlands survive on acidic soils on steep gill sides. With the high humidity and clean air, these woodlands have an abundance of bryophytes and lichens. Wet woodlands of alder, birch and willow are important winter food sources for black grouse, and occur in some valley bottoms. Stands of juniper scrub, of international significance, occur on the moorland fringes and on some gill sides, but tend to be fragmented; the exception is Upper Teesdale, where there are some extensive stands. On moorland fringes to the north and east, a number of large conifer plantations have been introduced; these support local populations of red squirrel and nightjar. The importance of the moorland, grassland, woodland and freshwater habitats in the North Pennines is reflected in the fact that 44 per cent of the area is designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC).

The population is low, with only a few small market towns, such as Alston, Stanhope, Wolsingham and Middleton-in-Teesdale. This lack of light sources results in dark night-time skies. Within the dales there are small villages, hamlets and farmsteads, with simple architectural detail, built of locally quarried sandstone, limestone or Millstone Grit, and with roofs of stone flag or slate. Settlements are also characterised by public buildings such as libraries, schools and non-conformist chapels. Isolated farms, often sheltered by a copse of trees, are located along the moorland margins. There is a concentration of bastles (fortified farmsteads) towards the north, in Allendale and the South Tyne valley. A large proportion of the area is managed by a few estates, such as in Allendale and Teesdale, and the Ministry of Defence owns Appleby Fells. In Teesdale the whitewashed buildings of the Raby Estate are particularly distinctive, as is the picturesque estate village of Blanchland, near Derwent Reservoir.

The Northern Pennine Orefield became world-famous for its lead and other minerals, such as zinc and iron ores, copper, fluorspar, barytes and witherite. The landscape retains much evidence of this mining, such as mine buildings, smelt mills, shafts, levels, leats, washing floors and flues, while on the hillsides there are heaps of spoil and evidence of hushing (where water has been used to assist with the process of lead ore extraction). Over time, each dale has developed its own character, arising from combinations of landform, pastoral farming and industrial activity. Weardale, for example, retains more substantial evidence of this early industrial period than other dales.

In places, the presence of heavy metals in mining spoil, and in sands and gravels washed down into the rivers, has given rise to calamarian grasslands, with their specialised plant communities including alpine penny-cress, thrift, mountain pansy and spring sandwort.

Transport routes are limited, due the topography, with the main roads following the valley floors. However, much of the area (61 per cent) is open access land, and there are over 2,000 km of public rights of way, including three national trails (the Pennine Way, the Pennine Bridleway and a small stretch of the Hadrian’s Wall Path). These, and the quiet roads, make the area a popular destination for walkers and, increasingly, for cyclists, with the popular C2C cycle route crossing the area. The many waterbodies – streams, rivers and reservoirs – provide opportunities for other recreational activities, such as canoeing and fishing.

The North Pennines are a very tranquil area, with a distinctive character that has inspired many writers, including Sir Walter Scott, Charles Dickens and W.H. Auden, and artists such as J.M.W. Turner, John Martin, Thomas Smith and George Lambert; the area continues to attract artists and writers today.

The landscape through time

The North Pennines is dominated by the effects of the Alston Block, which is bounded by faults. The most prominent of these is the North Pennine Fault System, marked by the dramatic escarpment along the west side of the area.

The older Ordovician and Silurian slates and volcanic rocks are exposed in Upper Teesdale and form distinctive conical hills (or ‘pikes’) along the foot of the Pennine escarpment. Intruded into these rocks, at depth, is the Weardale Granite. This relatively buoyant rock has ensured that the area has remained higher than the surrounding land. Carboniferous-age rocks, composed of layers of limestone, shale, sandstone and coal, overlay the granite and form most of the visible bedrock. This sequence forms most of the area’s fells and dales. Differential erosion of these rocks has produced flat-topped hills and terraced profiles to many hillsides, sometimes with prominent limestone or sandstone scars.

Intruded into the Carboniferous rocks is the Whin Sill, a hard, columnar-jointed igneous rock that is resistant to erosion. This forms dramatic crags – such as at High Cup Nick, Holwick Scar and Cronkley Fell – and, where crossed by rivers, it forms spectacular waterfalls like High Force and Cauldron Snout. In Upper Teesdale, areas of limestone were metamorphosed by the hot intrusion to form a crumbly marble that weathers into sugar limestone, which supports internationally important arctic-alpine flora. A network of mineral veins formed underground from warm, mineral-rich solutions. These deposits have been mined for centuries for minerals such as galena (lead ore), sphalerite (zinc ore), and iron and copper ores. Frosterley Marble, a layer of dark grey limestone with fossil corals, is a highly prized building stone, used in important buildings throughout the area as well as in Durham Cathedral and further afield.

In the more recent geological past, the landscape has been shaped by ice and meltwater. During the last glacial period, a thick ice sheet widened the valleys and smoothed the hills, depositing clay, sand and boulders, and forming drumlins in valley bottoms.

The moorlands retain exceptionally well preserved field remains of prehistoric settlement, ritual sites and features, as well as sheilings (seasonal sites for summer sheep and cattle pastures). The dales also retain medieval and later features, such as settlement earthworks, lynchets and ridge-and-furrow, associated with the expansion and contraction of agriculture and settlement.

In the Roman period, the area was an important part of the military frontier zone, and several roads crossed the uplands. There is evidence of widespread small farms from this period, with cereal cultivation high up the dales. The tradition of building farmsteads in which the farming family lived above the farm animals, benefitting from the heat provided by them in this cool upland area, continued into the 18th century. Early settlements, with long rectangular fields and ridge- and-furrow, were concentrated in the sheltered valleys. The enclosed fields seen today can reveal two or more phases of enclosure, in that the present stone walls either respond to or cut across earlier bank or bank-and-ditch boundaries. In the north of the area, defensive bastles and pele towers (small, fortified keeps or tower houses) were built to protect from raids from the north, and many still remain – especially in Allendale and the South Tyne valley.

From the 12th century there were extensive royal hunting forests throughout the area, along with vaccaries (cattle ranches). The extraction of lead, silver, iron, zinc and copper ores took place from the 12th century onwards. Much of the current pattern of farms and fields was established from the 16th century, when miner-farmers established smallholdings in which farmsteads were combined with barns and haylofts, and a few pastures and meadows in the valleys were defined by drystone walls, supported by grazing rights on the commons on the hilltops.

The mining and smelting of lead ore and precious metals left indelible marks on the landscape in the form of old spoil heaps, mine buildings, shafts, levels, leats, wheel pits, washing floors, flues, chimneys, hushes and open cast workings. The industry expanded with the introduction of the railway in the mid-19th century, and the population increased, reaching a peak of 27,000 in 1861, with mining activity focused around places like Kilhope, Alston, Nenthead and Rookhope. Planned villages, such as at Allenheads, were built for the workers. Subsequently, fluorite and barytes were also mined, but the decline of the mining industry from the late 19th century resulted in the significant depopulation of the area.

Large-scale quarrying has also left its mark, with several quarry sites in the Whin Sill outcrop in Teesdale, and the Great Limestone outcrop in Weardale. Only a few of these quarries are still active. In the 19th and 20th centuries the impervious rock and high rainfall led to the construction of several reservoirs, such as Derwent, Cow Green, Grassholme, Balderhead and Selset, to supply the industry and urban populations of Tyneside, Wearside and Teesside.

Around this time, management for grouse shooting joined that for livestock grazing in influencing the extensive tracts of open heather moorland, with the introduction of stone butts and remote shooting huts. During the 20th century several conifer plantations were established on the moorland fringes, while increases in livestock numbers and drainage led to an increase in grass moor and rough grazing – at the expense of heather moorland. Other changes in agricultural practices, such as increased fertiliser use, led to a reduction in species-rich hay meadows. There was an increase in recreational uses such as walking, fishing, sailing, canoeing, and grouse and pheasant shooting.

The area’s distinctive landscape led to the designation of 88 per cent of it as an AONB in 1988. The AONB was then awarded UNESCO Global Geopark status in 2004, for its special geological interest.