107 - Cotswolds : Analysis: Ecosystem Services

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Livestock production and arable production

State – Food production is a key provisional service with 83 percent of the area under registered farms. The soil types are well suited to arable farming systems, affording high yields of cereal crops. In 2009 an estimated 76,000 ha within this NCA was under cereal production, with other crops such oilseed rape and linseed on the increase and roots, beans, peas a smaller part of the mix. The area supports 96,000 cattle, predominantly for beef, retains some dairying and supports 272,000 sheep, making this an important meat producing area.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The area has a long history of food production. Cereals and livestock are both important across the area and their distribution is intimately linked to landform with livestock found on valley sides and the escarpment and cereals on the high wold. Mixed farming was more prevalent but arable cropping has increased. Livestock, and in particular sheep farming, has a strong cultural association with the Cotswolds and contributes to sense of place and history, in particular the long wool sheep so characteristic of the Cotswolds known as the Cotswold Lion. Horticulture is an important and locally significant activity in the northern Cotswolds.

Changes in cropping patterns in response to climate change may see more novel crops introduced. A challenge within this area will be to maintain levels of permanent grassland as both cereal crop prices and CAP reform make its conversion markedly more attractive. If large-scale conversion does take place this is likely to impact on water quality, and in particular groundwater quality. The nationally important limestone grasslands currently afford some carbon sequestration.

Opportunities – Work with the local farming community to safeguard future food production while enhancing key ecosystem services such as biodiversity, water quality and regulation, soil quality and enhancing soil quality but reducing erosion, pollination and genetic diversity.

Work with local land managers to maintain the diverse and mixed enterprises across the area and in particular the retention of permanent pasture/grassland.

Seek opportunities to retain and enhance a network of limestone grassland through arable reversion.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water quality
• Sense of place
• Genetic diversity
• Regulating soil quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing woodland
• Hedgerows

State – The relatively high woodland cover of this area (11 percent of the total area) is relatively underutilized as a timber source. Eight percent of this is broadleaf – much of it beech. Some of this beech wood has been designated as SAC and SSSI for its biodiversity interest through designation, for examples Cotswolds Beechwoods SAC. One percent is conifer established between 1960 and 1980.

There are 10,348 ha of ancient woodland situated on the scarp of slopes, or in steep valley sides to the south and on the dip slope.

There is limited capacity for the production of hard and soft timber but there exists potential to increase the production of local timber by bringing existing unmanaged or undermanaged woodlands back under management.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – There are limited opportunities for woodland creation and care is needed so as not to result in a significant change in the character of the area or to reduce areas of other important habitats, particularly limestone grassland. Most existing deciduous woodland is located on scarp slope and steep valley sides and largely inaccessible for commercial timber provision. However some short- term provision may arise from the removal of conifer plantations, with subsequent reversion to broadleaf woodland limiting further provision.

Bringing existing deciduous woodland into traditional management, where possible, would create a local supply of timber or woodfuel. Increased biodiversity and soil stability may result from positive, targeted management.

Opportunities – There may be limited opportunities for woodland creation on the scarp and some valley sides helping to reduce flows of water and limit soil erosion; however, their use for timber production is likely to remain limited. There may also be limited opportunity for local timber provision through reinstatement of woodland management techniques within some existing woodlands. Incentives such as woodland grant scheme could be used to help encourage this.

Sites supporting other semi-natural habitats, important species and heritage assets will need to be avoided.

Manage traditional hedgerows for the provision of timber for local wood-fuel supply.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Timber provision
• Biodiversity
• Climate regulation
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating soil erosion
• sense of place/inspiration
• Biomass energy

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Extensive limestone aquifer
• Fens and flushes sensitive to low flows
• Winterbournes and slads
• Important salmonid fish communities
• Moderately high rainfall rate
• Limestone grassland and lowland pasture

State – Almost all of the NCA lies over a limestone aquifer made up of the unconfined Great and Inferior Oolites. This provides groundwater to the rivers and is of strategic importance for public water supply.

This NCA has the headwaters of the River Thames, and a number of other rivers which form tributaries of the Thames, including the Coln, the Churn, the Leach, the Windrush and the Evenlode. All of these rivers rise as limestone springs on the dip slope of the Cotswolds and flow eastward joining the Thames further downstream in the adjacent Upper Thames Clay Vales NCA (The Cotswolds Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, 2007).

There are a large number of abstractions from both rivers and groundwater sources within this NCA. Surface water sources supply more than half of the total licensed volume but the majority of this volume is returned to its source at or close to the point of abstraction after being used for fish farming.

The response to recharge within the limestone is rapid (in a matter of days) and river flows increase almost simultaneously. Equally the effects of abstraction on stream flow can be rapid and significant, most notably during periods of summer low flows, but depends on the localised circumstances and how much is taken.

There is potential surface water capacity available for abstraction in the River Evenlode, the River Leach, and the Thames headwaters and groundwater currently available from the Upper Windrush unconfined limestone and the Upper Coln unconfined limestone aquifers. However, most of the area is classed as having ‘no further water available’ for abstraction from both surface water and groundwater while the central part of the aquifer is already ‘over licensed’, with further pressures associated with the growth of surrounding towns and cities, especially Bath in the south and Gloucester and Cheltenham on the north- west boundary of the NCA (The Cotswolds Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, 2007).

There are wetland SSSI in the NCA that are dependent on groundwater springs and flushes such as Middle Barton Fen, Ravensroost Wood, Wychwood Forest, Brassey Reserve and Windrush Valley.

The Cotswolds area has hundreds of sites that have been designated as locally important for wildlife. Many of these are associated with the clean, groundwater-fed rivers and springs rising from the limestone.

There is a thriving fishery resource in the catchment. All of the Cotswolds rivers except the upper Thames are designated Salmonid Fisheries under the Freshwater Fish Directive and Native brown trout water under the Environment Agency National Trout and Grayling Strategy (The Cotswolds Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy, Environment Agency, 2007), all highlighting the importance of maintaining ground and surface water levels in this sensitive NCA.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – The limestone aquifer underlying the NCA is of strategic importance for public water supply and supplies major conurbations surrounding the Cotswolds including Bath, Gloucester and Cheltenham. Because of its nature this aquifer is sensitive to over abstraction and pressures such as increasing demand from urban growth and as rainfall patterns fluctuate with climate change there is potential that it may become over abstracted during drier summer months. This would potentially affect water supply and the ecological capacity of rivers, flushes and fens and in particular important salmonid populations. Regulatory regimes should ensure ecological flow needs are met but continued vigilance is required.

Pasture, flood plain grazing marsh and limestone grassland habitats, particularly on the valley sides and scarp slope can intercept large volumes of water and help reduce rates of surface flow and increase infiltration rates aiding recharge of the groundwater and filtering out pollution. With an increase in arable cropping this service may reduce and it’s important to ensure strategic sites are retained to continue to provide this services.

Surface water accounts for nearly half of abstraction licences in the catchment, but there is potential capacity in the system from the River Evenlode, the River Leach, and the Thames headwaters to respond to rising demand, however most of catchment is at capacity or over abstracted, which can compromise water supply for both public consumption, ecological flow levels in rivers and aquifer recharge.

Where the underlying limestone bedrock is particularly permeable, sections of rivers and their tributaries exist as dry valleys for many months. In prolonged periods of wet weather the increased surface run off and raised water table results in the re-establishment of the flow of these watercourses. They are known locally as slads or winterbournes and care is needed to maintain these functioning temporary wetland systems for their capacity to help manage flows in peak times and for their landscape and biodiversity value.

Opportunities – Ensure appropriate on-farm management of water supply and conservation through measures such as farm reservoirs, field drains and through cropping patterns.

Seek to slow water flow across landscapes through natural drainage patterns and the use of features such as hedgerows.

Seek to maintain the ecological flow levels in rivers and ground water through management of abstraction, particularly in periods of low flow.

Seek to ensure groundwater flows are sufficiently high to support seasonal patterns in winterbournes through controlling abstraction and ensuring morphological integrity of the winterbourne is maintained.

Seek to put in place measures which improve soil quality and condition and alleviate compaction to improve percolation and alleviate water flow issues.

Seek to put in place measures such as relocation of gates and associated gapping up, watercourse fencing, cross drains, sediment ponds and traps, livestock and machinery tracks and associated livestock fencing, pesticide handling and biobed options, roofing of manure, slurry and silage storage and livestock gathering areas and help reduce runoff from yards, tracks and gateways to alleviate water flow issues.

Identify strategic grasslands and ensure their retention and favourable management particularly on valley sides and the scarp slope to aid water interception and retention.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Water availability
• Regulating water flow
• Biodiversity
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil erosion

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing flocks of Cotswolds Sheep
• Blenheim Orange

State – The local breed of Cotswold sheep known as the Cotswold Lion is still found locally and numbers are recovering after a long period of unpopularity. By the mid 20th-century there was just one large breeding flock and a handful of small flocks left but since then numbers have slowly built back up due in part to the success of agri-environment schemes.

The Blenheim Orange apple variety was discovered in about 1740 in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, growing against the wall of Blenheim Park. It has remained a popular apple tree and is said to be one of our finest and most valuable apples.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – The Cotswold Lion has breed features which continue to make it a commercial option for local graziers, and for siring. However it is likely to be for its commercial value as a local product for both its meat and wool that it offers most potential and as a distinctive product that can be marketed preferentially at the farm gate and at farmers’ markets and farm shops. In particular the breed’s history as a wool producer would suggest direct marketing for woollen products would be viable.

Culturally the Cotswold Lion is a continued asset as an emblem of the area and its cultural identity. Its long historic association with grazing of the Cotswolds and its underpinning of the success of the wool trade in England in the 18th and 19th centuries adds a tangible connection to the past and current agriculture. The AONB use the breed as their distinctive brand and for the title of their local quarterly newspaper.

Numbers of this breed remain fragile and its long connection with the area makes it ideal to maintain the limestone grasslands of the Cotswolds; however fluctuating popularity and flock size may well be an issue in maintaining feasible numbers.

The Blenheim Orange, an Oxfordshire apple variety, has a strong association with the eastern fringes of the NCA around Woodstock. It is now widely planted as a garden fruiting tree, and it is important to maintain local plantings due to its association with the area.

Opportunities – Seek to maintain viable flocks of Cotswold Lion sheep and the genetic basis of the breed and seek expansion in numbers to secure its future in the Cotswolds.

Develop the brand for meat and wool from the Cotswold Lion and develop a demand for local market of quality product.

Continue to raise the profile of the breed and its historical significance to the area through branding and advocacy.

Promote its use as a grazing animal in local grazing schemes and in particular for conservation grazing.

Ensure Blenheim Orange remains viable within the Woodstock area and encourage local orchard planting and management.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Genetic diversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Biodiversity
• Food provision
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing woodland and hedgerows

State – A few small areas of energy crops, primarily miscanthus have been planted since 2000.

Both the NCA’s 11 percent woodland cover and an extensive hedgerow network are an underutilised resource.

Oilseed rape production within the NCA is used in biodiesel production.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Thin brashy soils, high arable crop prices, high water demand of both miscanthus and short rotation coppice mean that uptake of energy crops has not been high in this area. No suitable end user is apparent, which also limits opportunity. Defra energy crop maps show potential for miscanthus in this area as medium to low and short rotation coppice as medium.

It may be possible to produce some biomass fuel as a result of bringing woodlands into management, particularly traditional, coppice management of deciduous woodland. Much of the deciduous woodland in the area is on steep valley sides making it unviable for commercial biomass production and is of high landscape and biodiversity value.

Converting conifer plantations to deciduous woodland would generate some short-term supply of biomass.

Biomass is available from the area, possibly at a significant local level, from the routine management of hedgerows, particularly the production of small- section beech on the dip slope.

Opportunities – Bring local woodlands into traditional coppice management, generating a local supply of biomass energy. Similarly the arisings from hedgerow management could supply a local demand.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biomass energy
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Timber production
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing woodland
• Existing organic soils under flood plain grazing marsh, permanent pasture, limestone grassland and woodland.

State – Across this NCA the mineral soils generally have low carbon content, typically 0 to 5 percent, especially where under continuous arable cultivation. However, soils of flood plain grazing marsh (up to 1,300 ha) will contain much higher carbon levels. Areas under permanent pasture, limestone grassland and the organic soils under woodland cover are also likely to retain higher volumes of carbon.

Woodlands will also play an important role in sequestering atmospheric carbon and in storing it in living plant material, as will the small areas of reedbeds and fen.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – There is limited soil carbon content in the soils of the Cotswolds. Mineral soils on the dip slope and high wold under arable cultivation offer limited potential, although frequency of cultivation, cropping patterns and inputs can affect their sequestration potential.

The escarpment and valley sides in the south around Bath, west around Wotton-under-Edge and Stroud, and on the dip slope are dominated by woodland, limestone grassland and permanent pasture have enhanced carbon levels.

The river valleys of the Windrush and Evenlode, Vale of Bourton and Moreton and the rivers of the Head of the Thames all have associated wet meadows, pasture and woodland and associated soils which store modest amounts of carbon.

Although the area has a relatively high woodland cover (11 percent) which has some sequestration potential, there is limited opportunity for extensive new areas of woodland planting so overall woodland contribution is limited to extending and buffering existing sites.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to expand the area of woodland adjacent to existing ancient semi-natural woodland sites to realise the potential for further, long-term carbon storage associated with woodland management.

Seek opportunities to increase the potential carbon storage abilities of mineral soils under arable production through increasing organic matter inputs and by introducing break crops into arable rotations. Introduce minimum tillage to reduce carbon loss.

Seek to expand the area of permanent pasture, wet meadow and limestone grassland to further the ability of the habitats and the underlying soils to sequester increased volumes of green house gases from the atmosphere. Consider planting trees in urban settlements to aid local climate regulation.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Climate regulation
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating water quality
• Timber production
• Biomass energy

No information available.

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Rivers
• Lowland Calcareous grassland
• Lowland pastures
• Floodplain and grazing marsh
• Fens Reedbeds

State – For information regarding the current state of water quality within this NCA, refer to the Environment Agency (Draft river basin management plan maps).

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Ecological status failures within the water bodies in this NCA are, in the majority for phosphate and fish.

Nitrate and pesticide pollution, from agricultural inputs are of particular concern for groundwater in the north and western parts of the area and some surface waters. This is particularly problematic due to the highly porous nature of the rocks which form the aquifer in this area.

This area is known for its high quality drinking water and increasing nitrate and pesticide levels can result in higher treatment costs for drinking water. This can be a particularly long-term problem for groundwater where pesticides can persist for many years.

Phosphate concentrations are a concern on the rivers Evenlode, Glyme and Ampney Brook. This results in enrichment of the water and reduction in its conservation value and in particular salmonid species and in drinking water.

Opportunities – Seek to support initiatives which give tailored farm advice about agricultural inputs and soil and water management to help address water quality issues within the area, such as catchment sensitive farming.

Seek to put in place measures such as relocation of gates and associated gapping up, watercourse fencing, cross drains, sediment ponds and traps, livestock and machinery tracks and associated livestock fencing, pesticide handling and biobed options, roofing of manure, slurry and silage storage and livestock gathering areas and help reduce runoff from yards, tracks and gateways to alleviate water quality issues.

The EA have actions in place to address these failures, some of which are for water bodies which need to meet Good Ecological Status by 2015.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Water availability
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Wet meadows River valleys
• Limestone grassland
• Lowland pasture
• Woodland
• Hedgerows
• Fens
• Reedbeds

State – Flooding is generally not an issue within the NCA, although localised pockets of high risk do occur, such as to the south of Banbury in the north- east from the Cherwell and flooding of Bath from the Avon. However, the area forming the headwaters of the Thames, does contribute to flooding of the Thames further downstream and outside of the NCA, examples of which include the heavy rains in the summer of July 2007.

Groundwater influences river flows. As identified in the Catchment Flood Management Plan the underlying limestone allows water to soak into the ground and as a consequence this water is released at a slower rate into the rivers than would be experienced in clay catchments. Short intense summer storms can also overwhelm smaller rivers and streams and urban drainage systems in this area.

Low flow can be an issue due to the nature of the catchment. The Tetbury Avon and Sherston Avon, the two tributaries at the head of the Bristol Avon, have stream support boreholes to alleviate low river flows.

Semi-natural features such as natural river systems, grasslands woodland and hedgerows, all play a role in this area in intercepting and slowing water flow. Those situated on valley slopes adjacent to arable areas and along river corridors are of particular value.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The Environment Agency Thames Catchment Flood Management Plan (2009) identifies this area as at low risk of flooding due in part to the nature of the porous limestone geology and extent of semi-natural habitat features which help retain water and slow release into rivers. Where this capacity has been reduced through compaction of soils, loss of grasslands habitats which can intercept large volumes of water, or through other land use factors, action is taken to help manage run-off.

There is a localised flood risk around Banbury and Bath and urban areas downstream outside of this catchment on the Thames. Improving the management of water and control of floodwaters in this area, for example on the River Evenlode and Wychcombe, may provide benefit to help reduce this risk. These are unlikely to be on a strategic scale to resolve flood risks but may improve the natural corridor of the river at a local level.

The Environment Agency has already investigated the Avon upstream storage idea in Wiltshire to protect Bath and Bristol but this was found not to be feasible.

Measures to optimise river capacity where desirable should be identified. Increasing flood plain capacity and connectivity is desirable through riverine habitat restoration and management and the use of buffer strips, hedgerows and carefully sited tree planting, that could reduce overall flood risk will be beneficial in locations in the upper catchment that provide overall flood risk reduction or environmental benefits especially in the upper Thames, near Cirencester, on the River Churn and upstream of Woodford in the Roding catchment (Thames Catchment Flood Management Plan, Environment Agency, 2009). Adjacent wetland creation such as those within Cotswold Water Park is also beneficial in increasing storage capacity.

There is some scope to reinstate/create water meadows and wet pasture and other wetland habitats to alleviate local flooding in the Avon around Bath and the Cherwell around Banbury, and on the Head of the Thames. For example there is already a Flood Alleviation Scheme in place at Banbury which operates through enhanced upstream floodplain storage.

Water company groundwater abstractions for drinking water supply can impact spring flows and reduce river levels in this area. To mitigate this, further water, abstracted from aquifers deep underground, is discharged to these rivers to increase flow.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to expand areas of wetland habitats including wetlands, water meadows and wet pastures along valley bottoms and in river corridors to help increase water retention capacity and slow water release to river systems.

Seek opportunities which allow rivers to follow natural courses and re-engage with their flood plains to help retain and enhance water flow capacity

Seek opportunities to slow down water flow through good soil management and appropriate habitat creation such as field margins, copse planting, hedgerows and small wetlands.

Enable the recommendations of the Bristol Avon Catchment Flood Management Plan.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water flow
• Water availability
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Thin brashy lime-rich soils on the high wold and dip slope
• Deeper soils formed by alluvium and clay deposits in valley bottoms

State – This NCA has 7 main soilscape types: shallow lime-rich soils over limestone, covering 51 percent of the NCA; lime-rich loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (14 percent); slowly permeable seasonally wet slightly acid but base-rich loamy and clayey soils (11 percent); freely draining lime-rich loamy soils (9 percent); slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (8 percent); freely draining slightly acid but base-rich soils (4 percent); and loamy and clayey flood plain soils with naturally high groundwater (1 percent).

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The shallow lime-rich soils over limestone (51 percent) found on the high wold and dip slope are typically drought prone but their calcareous nature affords a degree of natural resilience to loss of quality. It is important to retain their high porosity when considering aquifer recharge. This requires the maintenance of good structural conditions to aid water infiltration and good nutrient management and soil husbandry to prevent pollution of the underlying aquifer. Historically these soils provide ideal sheep grazing and limestone grasslands, especially on the steeper slopes of the escarpment where the soil is thin.

More recently there has been an increase in arable cropping of some of these areas and a subsequent increase in application of artificial fertilisers and management which could lead to an increase in their friability through lack of organic content and loss of structure and eventual loss of quality and possible erosion.

The lime-rich loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (14 percent) found in valley bottoms are calcareous soils with some natural resilience and enhanced workability. These soils are at risk of topsoil compaction and poaching. Their prevalent use is for permanent pasture for summer grazing but they are frequently used for arable farming.

The slowly permeable seasonally wet slightly acid but base-rich loamy and clayey soils (11%) may suffer compaction and/ or capping as they are easily damaged when wet. In turn this may lead to increasingly poor water infiltration and diffuse pollution as a result of surface water run-off.

Opportunities – In shallow lime-rich soils, seek to improve soil structure and quality by increasing organic matter content through management interventions such as using break crops, changing crop rotation patterns and by increasing areas under grassland cover.

On lime rich loamy soils exercise careful management of weak topsoils to help maintain a good soil structure. Minimum tillage such as direct drilling can work well on some of these soils. Where organic matter is low, increasing organic matter inputs can help improve soil structure.

Seek management in seasonally wet soils to help reduce problems of compaction and/or capping for example by reducing access to these fields in wet winter months.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water flow
• Biodiversity
• Climate regulation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Lime-rich light textured shallow soils
• Free-draining base-rich soils
• Acid loamy soils and clayey soils with lower permeability
• Small woodland copses
• Permanent pasture and limestone grassland
• Stone walls and hedgerows

State – There is a risk of soil erosion across the dominant soils in this NCA, namely, the lighter textured (less clayey) soils and shallow variants found particularly on the scarp and high wold. These are sometimes unstable and prone to loss through erosion.

The freely-draining slightly acid but base-rich soils and the slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage are prone to capping/slaking, leading to an increased risk of erosion, particularly on valley sides and bottoms.

The more clayey soils, such as the slowly permeable, seasonally wet, slightly acid but base-rich loamy and clayey soils that make up a small part of this NCA have a low risk of soil erosion.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The shallow lime-rich soils of the area support limestone grassland and permanent pasture for sheep farming which minimises the risk of soil erosion. Increasing trends towards arable cultivation increases soil friability and exposure, increasing the risk of erosion, particularly on slopes of scarp and valleys where cultivated or where bare soil is exposed along footpaths and tracks or as a result of outdoor pig rearing. Because of the thin brashy nature of these soils, lack of organic inputs and their friability can mean they lose fertility, soil moisture content and have an increased erosion risk through both water and wind erosion. This can lead to an increase in run-off and sedimentation in some rivers.

Reducing the velocity and quantity of water running across slopes and valley sides through the use of field margins and boundary features such as hedgerows would reduce erosion and subsequent sedimentation of rivers. Increasing soil organic content will both help with structure and moisture content, also helping to reduce erosion risk.

The slightly loamy acid soils are easily compacted by machinery or livestock if accessed when wet, increasing the risks of soil erosion by surface water run-off, especially on steeper slopes. Good soil husbandry management should be adopted, alongside the use of field margins and hedgerows, to prevent its subsequent loss into river systems and downstream sedimentation problems in sensitive limestone rivers.

It is important to retain grassland in these high risk areas as they help retain soil organic content and stability. There is some risk from a change in cropping patterns and increase in arable. Identification of high risk locations and working with land managers to mitigate this will be key factors in addressing the risks.

Opportunities – Seek and realise opportunities for introducing permanent grassland, woodland and restoring field boundaries (hedgebanks) along scarp edge and valley sides in areas particularly prone to soil erosion or adjacent to main rivers and their tributaries.

Maintain permanent pasture across the escarpment and high wold and valley sides and encourage management for increased water holding capacity and higher water levels.

Manage arable land in ways that build up organic matter and avoid compaction, and introduce good soil husbandry and management such as cross-field ploughing and reducing wet weather access.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality
• Biodiversity
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Food production

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Semi-natural grasslands including limestone grassland, field margins and roadside verges
• Novel arable crops such as flax
• Hedgerow network

State – A network of 3,000 ha of existing limestone grassland, lowland meadows and pasture provides a good source of nectar for pollinating insects. These are distributed across the area, but are primarily found along the scarp meaning the network coverage is patchy on the high wold and dip slope, where there is little benefit for those cropping oil seed rape, root crops, peas and beans. Novel crops such as flax and lupin, while seasonal, do add to this network.

Arable cropping on the high wold and dip slope is primarily for cereals and as such is wind pollinated.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Cereal cropping benefits little from pollination and is the primary land use on the high wold. However a relatively good network of flower-rich habitat along the scarp currently exists and provides a provisional network of valuable pollinator habitat that is worth both preserving and extending as cropping patterns on the Cotswolds have both fluctuated and changed with oil seed rape, roots, peas and beans all being a part of the mix.

Where the network of semi-natural habitat is poor across the high wold and dip slope, and where there would be most benefit to oilseed rape, root crops, peas and beans, this limits the ability for pollinators to supply this service. Increases in habitat for pollinators such as the creation of areas of semi-natural habitat, hedgerow improvement and increases in field margins, linking to the network on the scarp will increase the delivery of this service. These measures would create important corridors and habitat mosaics for pollinator species. A strong pollinator population supports production of a wider variety of food products and supports food production in the future.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to increase nectar provision within the agricultural landscape through promotion of diverse field margins and creation of more semi-natural habitats.

Create networks of habitat through changes in management and improvements to hedgerows, road verges and field margins. Networks will support greater diversity of food production into the future.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biodiversity
• Regulating water quality
• Food production
• Climate regulation
• Regulating soil erosion
• Pollination

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Existing semi-natural habitats including limestone grassland and lowland meadows
• Field margins and hedgerows
• Roadside verges

State – A network of 3,000 ha of existing limestone grassland, lowland meadows and pasture provides a good network of semi natural habitat for pest-regulating species. These are distributed across the area, but are primarily found along the scarp meaning the network coverage is patchy and fragmented on the high wold and dip slope. Stone walls and field boundaries do add to the network and are in relatively good condition, although can be species-poor.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Increasing diversity in species and structure of field margins will increase the ability for these areas to support populations of pest-regulating species such as invertebrates, birds and mammals.

There are opportunities to improve the network of semi- natural habitats across the NCA through appropriate management of existing habitats and creation of new areas of habitat.

Opportunities – Take opportunities to increase and manage appropriately semi-natural habitats. Seek opportunities to increase diversity of structure and composition within areas of semi-natural habitat to support a variety of pest regulating species.

Seek opportunities to increase field margins, species-rich hedgerows and beetle banks to encourage a network of habitats for pest-regulating species close to areas of agricultural production.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Pest regulation
• Pollination
• Biodiversity
• Food production

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• A sense of harmony provided by the distinctive oolitic limestone used throughout from buildings to stonewalls
• Quintessential English landscape
• Diverse and dramatic limestone scenery from scarp to high wold and incised valleys
• Hanging beech woods and limestone grassland
• Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB)
• Strong field patterns with either stonewalls or hedgerows
• Parklands and manor houses
• Time depth of evident historic interest

State – Sense of place is especially strong and provided by the highly distinctive local oolitic limestone used in buildings throughout the area (including characteristic fine village churches, country houses and estate villages) and boundary walls on higher ground, with a diverse Jurassic Limestone scenery that is defined by a prominent, north-west facing scarp and a series of elevated open plateaux separated by intimate river valleys (known as the Wolds).

The steep north-westerly scarp is fretted by incised valleys and further characterised by highly distinctive ‘hanging’ beech woodlands and surviving remnants of limestone grassland, with settlements lying along the springline at the scarp foot.

The scarp edge is marked by open commons, iron-age hillforts and other earthworks, while to the north-east an undulating wolds landscape of wide views, large rectilinear arable fields and areas of sheep-grazed permanent pasture surrounded by drystone walls and shelter belts is broken by lush, enclosed and settled valleys, where the characteristic oolitic limestone is replaced by the equally distinctive reddish-brown ironstone and where hedgerows become the more characteristic form of field enclosure.

To the south lies the highly distinctive city of Bath with its Georgian architecture, perching on the sides of the Avon valley. Parklands surrounding fine manor houses that nestle within valleys are another distinguishing feature of the area.

Senses of inspiration and escapism are strongly associated with the Cotswolds, reinforcing its prominence as a visitor destination.

Inspiration is provided throughout by the area’s distinct use of local limestone, creating a unified and apparently ‘historic’ landscape with fine traditional buildings ranging from prominent churches and country houses to picturesque cottages and drystone walls. This is further supported by the area’s distinctive topography ranging from the dramatic north-west scarp that affords long views over surrounding areas to the rolling valleys within which towns and villages nestle harmoniously.

The Cotswolds have been the setting and inspiration for the work of Laurie Lee’s Cider with Rosie, J. M. Barrie’s Peter Pan and novels by Joanna Trollope. Jane Austen’s knowledge of Bath and the Cotswolds are reflected in her novels Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, and the war poems of Edward Thomas. Gustav Holst, composer of the The Planets was born in Cheltenham and was a church organist in the Cotswolds.

Chipping Campden is the type area for morris dancing throughout the world and the start of the Cotswold Way National Trail.

Main beneficiary – International

Analysis – The Cotswolds have a very strong and distinctive character, recognised by designation of 60 percent of the area as an AONB.

The area is very popular with residents of adjacent conurbations for recreation and relaxation, including the Cotswold Way National Trail, and with national and international visitors for its quintessential English landscape as promoted by the Arts and Crafts Movement in the 1880s.

Village design statements, parish plans and historic landscape character assessments all help to identify and raise awareness of characteristic features, contributing to the planning decision-making process.

Opportunities – There is scope to protect the contrasts between the scarp, high wold and dip slope and the character of each.

Opportunities exist to retain and restore patterns of drystone walls and hedgerows and the vernacular architecture of settlements, manor houses, churches and barns.

Utilise opportunities to ensure that development respects local settlement patterns and building materials, and to avoid the loss of historic evidence through insensitive development.

Land management practices should be sympathetic and enhancing of the biodiversity and rich cultural heritage found here.

Encourage and support the production of village design statements.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Time depth of evident historic interest
• Prehistoric features
• Roman settlements and roads including Bath World Heritage Site
• Common vernacular style and unity to all structures through widespread use of local building materials
• Distinctive field patterns including medieval field patterns, ridge and furrow and use of stone walls
• Parkland and Manor Houses and estate villages including Blenheim Palace WHS
• Market towns, traditional villages with churches and houses
• Delves and small quarries

State – The history of the landscape is evident in an abundance of prehistoric monuments, including Neolithic long barrows (such as Belas Knap and Hetty Pegler’s Tump), late Neolithic henge monuments (including Condicote Henge and the Rollright Stones) and standing stones, bronze-age round barrows and iron-age hillforts on the scarp edge (for example Bredon Hill and Meon Hill).

There is extensive evidence of Roman settlement, notably at Bath and at Cirencester, with other Roman settlements clustered around the Fosse Way and Roman villas concentrated in the lower valleys.

Medieval field pattern of assarted fields is evident in the Stroud Valley and irregular piecemeal enclosure of medieval strips is found on the scarp and locally elsewhere, with nationally important ridge and furrow patterns surviving at Todenham, Chastleton, Weston Subedge and Tysoe.

Particularly evident history are the area’s market towns of medieval origin (such as Moreton-in-Marsh and Chipping Campden), and the traditional villages, with their fine stone churches and houses, reflecting the area’s past importance in broadcloth production, and all of common vernacular style built from limestone that brings a unique sense of unity to the built environment of this NCA. Most notable among these settlements is the City of Bath, which is a World Heritage Site for its outstanding Roman remains and Georgian architecture.

The historic wealth of this area is further reinforced by the area’s fine manor houses and historic parklands with landscapes ranging from formal late 17th-century to picturesque 19th-century and early 20th-century Arts and Crafts, while 19th- century estate villages are another distinctive element.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – This area is well known for its rich history, visually prominent across much of the area. The main emphasis is on protecting the range and diversity of these features, exposed and unexposed, and on providing interpretation to develop wider public understanding and appreciation of the area’s heritage.

Pasture improvement and arable intensification, especially ploughing, are a threat to areas of ridge and furrow, buried archaeology and other historic earthworks, especially on the high wold where cropping is more prevalent. Lack of management of field boundaries risks losing the complex record of field enclosure and degrading landscape character.

Historic parkland have suffered serious decline. In 1918, about 6 percent of the area was historic parkland making this area nationally important. By 1995 it was estimated that 37 percent had been lost. They remain a key character and measures should be taken to secure their setting and presence.

Loss of traditional village patterns and building materials from increased development pressure is a risk, particularly outside the boundaries of the AONB especially as new developments tend to lack traditional features such as greens.

Continued expansion of larger villages and towns and cities like Bath, Banbury, Gloucester and Stroud detract from the rural feel of the NCA.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to protect, manage and enhance historic features and their setting, particularly in the face of land management or land use change.

Seek to continue and enhance interpretation of the many layers of historic evidence for educational and recreational purposes.

Continue to ensure that the restoration of vernacular buildings is carried out using local styles and appropriate materials, and that land management practices and developments do not damage archaeological evidence or historic features, including buried archaeology.

Enhance opportunities to use the network of paths to gain access to, reveal and interpret the area’s rich history.

Protecting the historic settlement pattern within rural villages and across the NCA as a whole through new developments.

Maintenance of the large house estates along with their associated parkland will increase sense of history and their link to historical features in the landscape.

Ensuring good soil management and low tillage can help protect buried archaeology.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• A sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Tranquillity
• Biodiversity
• Recreation
• Regulating soil quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Secluded and quiet valleys and scarp
• Small traditional villages linked by an intimate road network
• Open and expansive vistas from the scarp and high wold
• Woodland
• Parkland
• Largely uncluttered landscape and views

State – The area has suffered significant loss in tranquillity in the past fifty years, with a decline in ‘undisturbed’ areas from 84% in the 1960s to 54% in 2007 (CPRE Intrusion Map, 2007). Factors affecting tranquillity include the major settlements of Bath, Cirencester and Stroud, as well as most notably the major transport routes including the M4, M40, A417, A46 and A40 and mainline railways that cross the NCA. A sense of tranquillity is nevertheless associated with much of the area, especially the undeveloped valleys and scarp, the areas of woodland and parkland, and the rural lanes linking traditional villages that retain a timeless air

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Despite the reduction in tranquillity from 84% in the 1960s to 54% in 2007, the area still retains a rural sense of space with uncluttered open vistas, important in providing an experience of tranquillity for those living and visiting the area.

Expansion of settlements and the major road network should be monitored and opportunities taken to ensure remaining tranquillity enhanced, There remain many quiet, rural intimate and secluded valleys for undisturbed contemplation.

Opportunities – Seek opportunities to retain the sense of uncluttered open vistas on the scarp and high wold by protecting them from inappropriate development.

Protect and enhance the features and uncluttered nature of undeveloped valleys, woodland, parkland and winding country lanes which add to sense of tranquillity.

Where possible, existing obtrusive features (power lines, masts, disused structures etc) should be removed or more sensitively incorporated into the landscape.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Tranquillity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Public rights of way network
• Cotswold Way National Trail, the Thames Path
• National Trail and the Wychwood Way
• Open access land
• Parklands and gardens
• Numerous towns and villages
• Bath World Heritage Site
• National Cycle Network

State – Recreation and tourism are key features of the area, supported by 4,700 km of rights of way (at a density of 1.66 km per km²), including 151 km of the Cotswold Way National Trail running the length of the NCA as well as the start of the Thames Path National Trail and a number of other long distance paths. Multi-user paths and particularly those suitable for horse riders are more limited and often fragmented.

The NCA also enjoys a number of routes that form the National Cycle Network. Around 2,500 ha of open access land also lies within the NCA, associated with areas of common land and down, while the area’s parklands, gardens, towns and villages, the architecture and history of Bath World Heritage Site and Roman Cirencester attract numerous visitors.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – This area is well known for its range of recreational opportunities and attracts a great number of international and domestic visitors. With limited rail and bus transport, a number of villages suffer traffic congestion in summer months while many tourist attractions and the Cotswold Way National Trail require ongoing active management to maintain a high quality visitor experience. Multi- access routes are more limited although popular with initiatives such as horse friendly bed and breakfasts.

Opportunities – There are opportunities to create more multi- user paths and improve greenspace for both visitors and local people and the range of recreational opportunities they provide, particularly by making some paths “access for all” at key locations and encouraging higher rights on paths for cyclists and horse riders.

There are opportunities to enhance an existing well-signed rights of way network, to help relieve pressures on main routes with accompanying interpretation, and create circular routes linked to towns and villages that can be used by local people and visitors that can help support the rural economy.

There are opportunities to provide interpretation of the landscape and its many features, especially historic features such as hill forts, prehistoric burial sites, and Roman villas.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Internationally and nationally designated sites and habitats including:
• Lowland mixed deciduous woodland including
• Lowland beech and yew woodland
• Wet woodland
• Lowland calcareous grassland
• Flood plain grazing marsh
• Lowland meadow
• Reedbed
• Fen
• Rivers

State – This NCA supports a wealth of biodiversity with priority habitats covering 15,800 ha (6 percent) of the NCA. Just under 5,000 ha of the NCA area is designated as SSSI (1.45 percent of the NCA) and this area includes 3 SAC. In 2011, 57 percent of SSSI were in favourable condition and 37 percent in unfavourable recovering condition.

Key habitats include: 6,000 ha of lowland beech and yew woodland, 3,000 ha each of wet woodland and lowland calcareous grassland as well as 1,700 ha of lowland mixed deciduous woodland and 1,300 ha of flood plain grazing marsh. There are also pockets of lowland meadows (600 ha), reedbeds (200 ha) and fens (200 ha).

The area supports an abundance of important vascular plants, invertebrates such as Duke of Burgundy butterfly, and important overwintering roosts of greater and lesser horseshoe bats and Bechstein’s bats, alongside farmland birds and arable plants.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Habitats such as lowland calcareous grassland and beech woods provide a coherent mosaic along the scarp, and onto the dip slope, with tree-lined rivers and valleys providing habitat corridors running west to east across the dip slope. Generally, designated sites and habitats are in favourable or favourable recovering condition.

Scrub formation, a loss of species interest and species-rich grassland are as a result of a lack of appropriate grazing on biodiverse sites and increase in arable conversion on the scarp and dip slope. Lack of woodland management is also a risk to the condition of beech woods, and woodland birds in particular.

Farmland bird numbers have declined in this area and this is thought to be due to a decline in mixed farms and therefore a reduction in a good matrix to support their nesting and food needs. Initiatives to reinstate a good matrix of given habitats have seen some success with species such as tree sparrow increasing in numbers.

Woodland birds are in decline in this area and although the reasons for this remain unclear, a lack of diversity in structure of woodlands and their associated features may be a contributory factor.

Across much of the area appropriate management and grazing levels are crucial to maintaining habitat condition, including soil biodiversity, including management of woodland or grazing of grassland. In some areas sourcing suitable grazing stock is difficult.

Opportunities – Concerted action should be taken to bring into good condition designated sites and other priority habitats, particularly through re- establishing appropriate grazing regimes alongside scrub and woodland management.

Enhanced buffering, alongside extension and linking of the core of designated sites should be undertaken, in line with climate change adaptation principles and landscape-scale working principles outlined in the Natural Environment White Paper.

Continued opportunities should be identified to improve the matrix of habitat for species of farmland birds, particularly on the high wold where arable cropping is most prevalent.

While a habitat-led conservation approach suits many species, increased attention should be given to many rare species which occupy more specialist niches.

Enhance interpretation of the importance of the areas biodiversity and its intimate relationship with geodiversity and land management.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Tranquillity
• Pollination
• Pest regulation
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Climate regulation
• Recreation

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Dramatic scarp edge
• Nationally designated sites
• Historic and current limestone quarrying
• Local stone often used in vernacular buildings
• History of geology
• Rich fossil beds of the Jurassic Period

State – There are currently 50 SSSI of or containing geological/ geomorphological interest and features. In addition, there are 186 local sites of geological interest.

The wealth and variety of geology and geomorphology provides opportunities for study, reinforces local distinctiveness and, influences the distinctive landform and biodiversity of this area. Quarrying remains important locally with significant sites along the length of the Cotswolds taking advantage of the different limestone qualities.

There is a long history of geological study within this area. William Smith, father of geology, developed his thinking of stratigraphy informed by sites here, and rich fossil finds, including the first scientifically recognised dinosaur fossil make this an important area for geodiversity.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Geodiversity sites and features occur across the area with concentrations and particular features of interest along the scarp edge and valley systems. Quarries and fluvial geomorphological sites also feature in the rich range of geodiversity present.

Geology and geomorphology also influence the aesthetic and cultural qualities of the area. Local stone used throughout for buildings and stone walls, and influencing the biodiversity interest brings a sense of harmony, however sensitivity is required in placing and scale of quarry workings.

The scale and drama of the scarp, the visible remains of prehistoric and bronze-age occupation, and local buildings, bridges and fossil finds all add to the rich geodiversity of the area, and its long history of study and contribution to science.

Opportunities – Support the use of local stone as a building material to help maintain local distinctiveness while balancing landscape impact and managing the resource.

Identify and realise opportunities for enhanced access to and recognition and understanding of geodiversity within the area.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Geodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity