116 - Berkshire and Marlborough Downs : Analysis: Ecosystem Services

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Soils
• Aquifer
• Grassland

State – The northern plateau and Vale of Pewsey are areas of high grade agricultural land. Almost half the farmed area of the NCA is cropped, with arable dominating in the high Downs in the north. The Vale of Pewsey, in the south-west, supports mixed agriculture.

Grass and uncropped land is found across approximately 30 per cent of the farmed area. Livestock produced includes sheep, cattle and pigs. Dairy is undertaken by almost 5 per cent of farms. Specialist poultry and pigs combined account for nearly 5 per cent of farmed area.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The proportion of high agricultural grade land (Grade 1 and 2) is considerable. The Vale of Pewsey comprises largely Grade 1 agricultural land which is put to a variety of uses, including remnants of fruit orchards.

Grade 2 is found across approximately 30 per cent of the NCA, with extensive areas on the plateau in the north. Farmers use groundwater, making use of abstraction points in farmland.

Large arable fields are a dominant feature of the downlands and high quality barley has historically been grown in this NCA. Local breweries include Wadworths. With a long history of cultivation across the thin chalk soils, soil quality may be declining and problems of soil erosion may be significant. Impacts upon yields will only be avoided by high inputs of fertiliser and water, with consequent impacts upon water resources.

Grade 3 land makes up almost 60 per cent of the NCA. The use of such land is often greatly influenced by market forces and, compared to Grade 1 and 2, grazing livestock and dairy are more likely to be found on such land. Between 2000 and 2009, grazing livestock holdings increased in number by 23 holdings but mixed farms fell by 32 holdings and dairy by 10 holdings.

There are significant areas of Grade 2 and Grade 3 land not utilised for food provision but instead managed for horses as gallops, grazing and hay/silage. Sheep or cattle may, however, be involved in mixed grazing systems.

Opportunities – Conserve soils in order to sustain yields in the long term. Adopt farming systems such as ‘precision’ farming which are resource efficient and minimise negative impacts on water quality, soil quality and biodiversity.

Build markets for local foods produced by farming systems which conserve the landscape and rare breeds. In particular, secure sheep farming where it conserves chalk grassland and heritage assets, and protects the aquifer and soils.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Food provision
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Biodiversity
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating water quality
• Water availability
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Woodland

State – Woodland cover extends to nearly 9 per cent of the NCA (approximately 9,700 ha) and is largely broadleaved.

Savernake and West Wood are examples of woods managed for timber

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – A North Wessex Downs AONB study (North Wessex Downs AONB Woodland Strategy (2005), Land and Landscape Management Ltd) suggests that many woods are not managed and the timber crop quality is not high.

Timber production is restricted by low woodland cover and the small average size of woodlands (woods less than 2 ha are considered to be numerous). Other factors include unsuitable crop type and low quality timber. Squirrel and deer damage is significant and affects timber quality. There are, however, larger woodland areas such as Savernake Forest which present some opportunity to obtain timber.

The majority of standing conifer, approximately 1,200 ha, will be felled in the next 20 years as much is reaching maturity and is in the form of plantation on ancient woodland sites.

New plantation for timber provision is limited by the large areas of high grade agricultural soils, dry and thin chalk soils and the presence of nature conservation designations and heritage assets.

Opportunities – Existing large woods should be managed to improve future timber provision. Small woodlands present limited opportunity for timber provision and may instead be managed to provide other ecosystem services such as wood fuel, biodiversity and sense of place.

Future plans for felled conifer plantations should take into account other ecosystem services. For example, it may be appropriate to re-stock with broadleaves.

Manage for sustainable supplies of high quality hard timber from mature woodlands such as Savernake.

Opportunities to increase timber production should not be to the detriment of valued open landscapes, heritage assets and nature conservation interests, or on areas of productive and versatile agricultural soils.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Timber provision
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Aquifer
• Chalk
• Swallow holes
• Soils
• Watercourses

State – The NCA is comprised of Chalk and Upper Greensand which functions as a major aquifer. The majority of the aquifer is unconfined. Re-charge of the aquifer is facilitated by freely draining and often shallow soils found across nearly three-quarters of the NCA. Swallow holes across the area also enable rapid filtration of water into the aquifer.

In the Kennet and Pang catchment, which covers the majority of the NCA but also land outside to the east, the greatest volumes are taken for public water supply and also agriculture.

Abstraction points are largely drawing from groundwater rather than surface water and points are associated with settlement but also agricultural land.

Most abstractions are used and discharged locally. However, 70 per cent of the volume abstracted from Axford leaves the Kennet catchment to supply Swindon and natural groundwater flow around Streatley in the east exports water out of the NCA directly into the Thames.

Groundwater and surface water resources are over-abstracted or over-licensed. This is despite recharge of the aquifer being higher than abstraction in the Kennet valley.

Some abstractors have storage facilities. Water storage is also provided by flood plain habitats including flood meadows.

The Kennet and Avon Canal draws water from the River Dun and River Kennet, affecting volumes in the rivers (North Wessex Downs AONB State of the Environment Report (2012), North Wessex Downs AONB).

Chalk streams have historically suffered low flows exacerbated by abstraction, for example the rivers Bourne (Hampshire Avon Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy (2006), Environment Agency), Kennet.

The River Kennet is the largest tributary of the Thames and in summer months contributes up to half its flow.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Groundwater levels depend upon recharge of the aquifer, percolation and volume of water abstracted. Aquifer recharge in the majority of the catchment is significantly aided by numerous swallow holes which allow rapid percolation of large amounts of water (Groundwater Quality Review – Kennet Valley Chalk (2005), Environmental Simulations International Ltd (on behalf of Environment Agency)).

The majority of soils in the NCA are valuable for aquifer re-charge because they are freely draining. However, the maintenance of good structural conditions in these soils is important to aid water infiltration.

In 2008, abstraction for public water supply at Axford was reduced to address flow impacts upon the River Kennet SSSI (Kennet and Pang Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy (2004), Environment Agency; Hampshire Avon Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy (2006), Environment Agency; Kennet and Pang Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy (2004), Environment Agency). Similarly, Blewbury pumping station was closed to address concerns about Mill Brook (The Vale of White Horse Catchment Abstraction Management Strategy (2006), Environment Agency) and Compton pumping station closed to improve flows in the Pang. The West Berkshire Groundwater Protection Scheme is a system of boreholes designed to supplement river flows and alleviate groundwater flooding when in operation.

Fish farms account for many licensed abstractions, but being non-consumptive, water is returned downstream. Other users include stables and general agriculture.

There are extensive areas of water- dependent habitat including
the River Kennet and Lambourn Floodplain SAC, River Lambourn SAC, River Avon SAC and Kennet Valley Alderwoods SAC. Chalk streams are groundwater-fed and their flows are therefore vulnerable to abstraction. Upper reaches of chalk streams, including the perennial head of the Kennet, have been lost (Passing of a River, G Maurice (undated)).

Winter flooding of the undeveloped flood plains in this area is a regular occurrence and historically led to the creation of managed flood meadows or ‘floating meadows’, a strongly characteristic feature of chalk rivers, providing a large area to store water.

There are significant fisheries interests associated with the chalk rivers and canal which require flows to support healthy fish populations. Flow conditions cater for the salmonid spawning grounds in some of the chalk stream headwaters. The River Bourne is one of the most important lamprey habitats in the Avon catchment.

Opportunities – Across the unconfined aquifer and particularly around swallow holes, the land and soils should be managed to assist infiltration and avoid contamination.

Encourage water storage reservoirs.

Work across the catchment to encourage water efficiency on farms, alongside other resource protection measures.

Current water demands and supply required for new development should be managed and planned to secure sustainable water consumption which protects water-dependent biodiversity and respects fisheries interests. In partnership with the Environment Agency and water companies, encourage take-up of water resource management measures in relation to public water supply and agricultural uses, for example, winter storage reservoirs, water metering and best practice irrigation.

Maximise water storage opportunities through restoring and managing flood meadows, particularly where there are benefits to biodiversity and the protection and restoration of heritage assets.

Work at a catchment scale to address and integrate the flow requirements of the chalk streams and the Kennet and Avon Canal.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Water availability
• Regulating water flow
• Regulating water quality
• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Food provision
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Orchards
• Wiltshire Horn sheep breed

State – Fruit is grown in the few remaining orchards of the Vale of Pewsey.

Historically, Wiltshire Horn was a breed of sheep associated with the Downs but there are no local breeds currently established.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Orchards in the Vale of Pewsey have a long history and so may contain valuable varieties.

Wiltshire Horn was once the dominant breed across the downs at a time when the wool industry was thriving. Such a breed is suitable for the conservation grazing of species rich chalk downland and may prove resilient in dry conditions expected from climate change.

Opportunities – Restore traditional orchards in the Vale of Pewsey to preserve genetic stock and use to replant or create new orchards, potentially through community initiatives.

Encourage Wiltshire Horn flocks, particularly where this would strengthen sense of place and conserve species rich chalk grassland.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Genetic diversity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Woodland
• Short rotation coppice

State – There is approximately 9 per cent woodland cover, with further cover provided by small farm woods and shelterbelts. Much of the woodland resource is unmanaged.

Current miscanthus and short rotation coppice cover is not known.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – With many woods unmanaged, wood fuel is not being harvested and future viability is declining. In many woods, the timber quality is poor and so wood fuel may be a suitable alternative product.

While biomass crops would not appropriate on the open rolling chalk downland, it may be possible to accommodate short rotation coppice in the valleys and in the more wooded areas to the south and east.

The potential yield for miscanthus is considered as predominately medium across the area, although larger areas of high potential exist locally on the lower slopes and in the Vale of Pewsey .

Water demands of biomass crops need to be sustainable, particularly where watercourses are already suffering from low flows.

Opportunities – Where timber quality is poor in existing woodlands, harvest the wood for biomass and regenerate the woodland so that its productivity and biodiversity is enhanced.

Encourage local wood fuel markets and community-based schemes where this brings woods into sustainable management. At the farm-scale, develop biomass use on the farm and, where possible, harvest farm woods.

Where woodland cover is a feature, such as the Vale of Pewsey, plant new woods to deliver biomass and other ecosystem services such as biodiversity and sense of place.

Opportunities to increase biomass production should not be to the detriment of valued open landscapes, heritage assets and nature conservation interests, or on areas of productive and versatile agricultural soils. Unsustainable demands upon water resources should also not be introduced.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biomass energy
• Timber provision
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Wetland habitats
• Wetland soils
• Permanent grassland
• Woodland

State – There are very small areas of soils with potentially 20 to 50 per cent carbon content towards the east of the NCA, mainly associated with flood plain areas. Soil carbon content is predominantly low at 5 per cent or less.

Carbon storage capacity is maximised across those areas subject to minimum soil disturbance, principally historical downland pasture, ancient woodland and historical flood plain habitats.

Carbon sequestration and storage in trees is restricted due to only localised woodland cover (approximately 9 per cent of the NCA, with additional cover provided by numerous small farm woods and shelterbelts).

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Soil carbon stores are limited due to the predominance of mineral soils which store limited carbon. Arable farming of such soils will further reduce their carbon content and arable farming dominates across the high Downs. Relict patches of historical pasture represent the best carbon stores across such soils.

The small areas of undisturbed wetland soils in the flood plains have good carbon storage potential, particularly those with peat components. However, lowering of water tables, drought and low river flows leading to reduced flooding may result in desiccation, oxidisation and subsequent loss of carbon content.

Due to low levels of woodland cover and lack of management, the contribution that woodlands can make to carbon sequestration is limited. However, woodland along chalk streams will cast shade and so help mitigate high water temperatures.

Opportunities – Manage soils to maximise carbon storage capacity through incorporating organic matter, arable reversion to permanent grassland and reduced cultivation frequency.

Conserve undisturbed soils and particularly peat soils, including those under permanent pasture, wetland habitats and ancient woodland.

Restore and create new wetland areas to benefit biodiversity, sense of place, water availability and also carbon sequestration.

Manage woodlands along chalk streams to provide sheltered corridors.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Climate regulation
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Biodiversity

No information available.

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Chalk aquifer
• Swallow holes
• Soils
• Hedgerows, woodlands and grassland buffers
• Reedbeds and wet woodland

State – For information regarding the current state of water quality within this NCA, refer to the Environment Agency (Draft river basin management plan maps).

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Organic and inorganic pollutants are found throughout the aquifer, usually at low concentrations (DEFRA Priority Catchments). However, there are consistently high nitrate concentrations and trends in several boreholes in the most vulnerable areas show that concentrations are rising.

The entire NCA is within a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone due to the presence of a major aquifer. Across the unconfined aquifer, soils are predominantly thin and have high leaching potential, making the aquifer vulnerable to pollution. Numerous swallow holes further increase the vulnerability of the aquifer and make widespread and long-lasting pollution possible.

The presence of nitrate is attributable to diffuse pollution such as agricultural fertilizer use and in some cases to urban pollution including sewerage. Sewage has been known to affect the upper reaches of the Pang, for example, where the channel is often dry and/or in low flow. There is a major sewage treatment works at Marlborough. Discharges also originate from fish farms, mineral workings and agriculture. In a rural catchment, a great number of discharges are from private dwellings where there is no mains foul sewer.

Sources of sediment pollution in the River Kennet have been linked to land use practices but also to tracks and roads and numerous tributary streams. Water quality issues in the River Kennet have also been linked to the Kennet and Avon Canal (River Basin Management Plan – Thames River Basin District (2009), Environment Agency).

The rivers Kennet and Lambourn (both SSSI and within an SAC) have been identified as priority catchments by Defra. Pollution has been linked to arable fields of maize and late-planted cereals within the catchments as well as unrestricted livestock access to river banks (DEFRA Priority Catchments) and areas of free range pig farming on valley sides. The Bourne is also a priority catchment.

Farmers have been implementing measures to reduce pollution, sometimes with grant support under Catchment Sensitive Farming schemes. Measures include grassland buffers and fencing along watercourses, sediment traps, routeway and farm infrastructure improvements.

Opportunities – Adopt farming systems which minimise pollution risk such as precision farming and low input farming.

Farmers and others work at a whole farm and at a catchment scale to maximise and strategically locate land cover which slows and filters run-off and reduces soil erosion, for example, arable reversion, hedgerow restoration and reinstatement, and introducing grassland strips and reedbeds where appropriate.

Work with water companies to identify innovative and sustainable solutions to waste water treatment from domestic sources in rural areas.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water quality
• Food provision
• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating water flow
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Groundwater
• Springs
• Watercourses
• Riparian woodland
• Wooded and vegetated slopes
• Permanent pasture
• Calcareous and/or well structured soils
• Water storage features
• Canal

State – Low flows affect the groundwater-fed chalk streams and other water-dependent habitats, including European designated sites and flood meadows. Variable water levels and flows are a natural feature of groundwater-dependent watercourses and springs but low flows in the upper reaches of the Kennet, Pang and Bourne have been a concern. The River Lambourn has a near-natural flow regime (North Wessex Downs AONB State of the Environment Report (2012), North Wessex Downs AONB).

Springs issue at the foot of escarpments. Along the northern escarpment, the most numerous springs emit from Upper Greensand west of Letcombe Basset while the largest arise in the Lower Chalk east of Letcombe Basset (Groundwater Quality Review – Kennet Valley Chalk (2005), Environmental Simulations International Ltd (on behalf of Environment Agency)). In the south, springs arise from the Upper Greensand. The River Kennet is the largest tributary of the Thames and in summer months contributes up to half its flow.

Scattered areas of rough grassland strips, hedgerows and woodlands act to slow run-off and assist infiltration to the aquifer. Features in the flood plain including ditches and meadows help store water during flood events.

Overland flow after rainfall events will be relatively low across well structured calcareous soils. This contrasts with clay-based soils in the floodplains which facilitate run-off, particularly when compacted.

There is limited localised risk of flooding from the River Kennet. As demonstrated in 2001 in Compton, groundwater flooding is possible in this NCA.

Groundwater flows vary across the NCA. A groundwater divide lies along the top of the escarpment overlooking the Vale of White Horse. Groundwater in the Bourne catchment flows towards the Test outside the NCA.

The Kennet and Avon Canal brings water in from the Bristol Avon catchment but also draws from the River Dun and River Kennet, modifying their flows. The canal leaks water to the south into the Hampshire Avon catchment.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – There are water-dependent SAC focused around the rivers Kennet, Lambourn and Avon as well as several water-dependent SSSI. The Kennet and its tributaries are chalk rivers with base flows dependent upon groundwater. Low flows, loss of springs and migration downstream of perennial heads have historically been observed and are associated with negative impacts on biodiversity.

In the flood plain, wet meadows, fens and marshes are affected by reduced water availability, low river flows, reduced seasonal flooding and loss of the ability to manipulate water levels in flood meadows.

Reduced water availability and hence flows are likely to be exacerbated by climate change and by increased water demand associated with population growth.

Groundwater flooding has been known, for example in Compton. The West Berkshire Groundwater Protection Scheme has the potential to mitigate against groundwater flooding.

Localised surface water flooding is most likely in the floodplains where soils and vegetation are not being managed to facilitate infiltration and slow run-off, and where flow is impeded by development. The principal settlements of Hungerford and Marlborough are on the Kennet.

Opportunities – Continue to monitor and manage for appropriate water regimes of key water- dependent features including chalk stream SAC.

At a catchment scale, manage features in the landscape to store water, assist infiltration to the aquifer and manage flows during rainfall and flood events. In particular, seek to conserve and restore ancient landscape features such as watermeadow systems which offer additional benefits relating to biodiversity and sense of place and history.

Work at a catchment scale to address and integrate the flow requirements of the chalk streams and the Kennet and Avon Canal.

When appropriate, manage groundwater flooding using the West Berkshire Groundwater Protection Scheme. Seek benefits for biodiversity and water supply.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating water flow
• Water availability
• Biodiversity
• Recreation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Lime-rich soils
• Freely-draining soils
• Soils under permanent pasture and ancient woodland

State – There are 7 main soilscape types in this NCA. Shallow lime-rich soils over chalk dominate, covering approximately 40 per cent of the NCA. The other principal types each cover around 15 per cent and are; freely draining lime-rich loamy soils; slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage; and freely draining slightly acid loamy soils.

Patches of undisturbed soils under permanent pasture and ancient woodland potentially conserve unmodified soil structures and fertility.

Prime agricultural soils of Grade 1 are found across nearly 4,500 ha and largely in the Vale of Pewsey. Grade 2 soils cover the northern plateau and total 31 per cent, approximately 35,000 ha, of the NCA. A further 57 per cent of the NCA is Grade 3.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – The attributes of calcareous soils make them suitable for growing crops but they are often shallow, prone to drought and vulnerable to erosion particularly on steep slopes. Such soils include shallow lime-rich soils over chalk (approximately 41 per cent of the NCA) and freely draining lime-rich loamy soils (17 per cent).

Across the high Downs, some areas have a long history of cultivation and crop yields are driven by chemical inputs. The structure of all soils is vulnerable to damage which reduces quality. The slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage are easily poached by livestock and compacted by machinery when the soil is wet.

The underlying aquifer makes overlying soil structure and soil contaminants significant in terms of water filtration.

Opportunities – Conserve and maximise the resource, aiming to avoid deterioration of soil quality, particularly those with high agricultural land classification grades and calcareous soils.

To benefit soils, water quality and biodiversity, maximise areas under permanent low input species-rich grassland and ancient woodland and particularly areas not well suited to cultivation, for example soils with naturally low fertility and steeply sloping fields.

Increasing organic matter can improve soil structure.

Adopt farming practices which conserve soil structure and minimise damage to heritage assets and buried archaeology, such as minimising vehicle and livestock movements when wet and adopting minimum tillage regimes.

Highlight aquifer recharge benefits delivered by soil conservation.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Water availability
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating water flow
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Soils
• Uncultivated soils under ancient woodland and permanent pasture
• Hedgerows and buffer strips

State – Undulating landform and steep slopes make soils vulnerable to erosion, particularly if cultivated or unvegetated. The vast majority of soils across the NCA (96 per cent) are at risk of erosion.

The shallow lime-rich soils over chalk (41 per cent of the NCA area) are sometimes unstable and prone to loss through erosion.

Coarse textured cultivated variants of the freely draining slightly acid loamy soils (16 per cent of the area) are susceptible to wind erosion. Many of the slightly acid loamy and clayey soils with impeded drainage (17 per cent of the area) and some of the freely draining slightly acid but base-rich soils (5 per cent) are prone to capping, leading to increased risk of erosion.

Woodlands regulate soil erosion on slopes where they lie on some parts of the escarpment and on valley sides down the dip slope. Hedgerows can also impede loss of soil and the grass baulks on the open Downs will serve a similar function.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – There are significant areas of sloping land and thin soils made vulnerable to erosion by cultivation. Areas of grassland on the scarp and on steep valley sides protect thin chalk soils from erosion.

There is a high risk of soil erosion on the high Downs due to a combination of factors: thin soils; chalk soils; large areas under cultivation; exposure to the elements; lack of intervening boundaries and woodlands to impede soil loss; and sloping ground.

In the Kennet and Lambourn valleys, sediment sources have been traced to; arable fields growing maize and late-planted crops; river banks disturbed by livestock ; and areas of free range pig farming on valley sides. Unfavourable condition of the River Lambourn SSSI has been linked to sediment pollution.

Opportunities – Manage cultivated land to reduce risks of soil erosion, including contour ploughing, careful timing of cultivations and maintenance of vegetation cover.

Incorporate features such as grassland strips into the arable landscape that; conserve soils; provide ecological connectivity; provide wildlife habitat; filter pollutants in run-off; and increase carbon sequestration. Avoid introducing new hedgerows across the high Downs to serve this purpose where there will be a negative impact upon the open landscape.

Secure arable reversion to grassland on steep slopes and other high risk areas, especially where it will extend existing species rich grassland and conserve heritage assets such as scheduled monuments.

Work at a catchment scale to tackle sediment pollution of watercourses, particularly where sediment is a recognised problem.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Regulating soil erosion
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating water quality
• Food provision
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Species-rich grassland
• Hedgerows
• Woodland edge
• Orchards

State – The NCA has approximately 1,400 ha of semi-natural flower-rich chalk grassland and heathland, which provides an important source of nectar for pollinating insects.

Other flower-rich habitats such as hedgerows and woodlands are scattered across the NCA and also serve pollinators.

Remnant orchards are found in the Vale of Pewsey.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Crops such as oilseed rape and orchard trees require insect pollination.

Pollination of wild plants is also important to the conservation of species-rich habitats including chalk grassland.

Neighbouring Salisbury Plain and West Wiltshire Downs NCA has a healthy bumblebee population.

Opportunities – Maintain pollinator habitat and, where possible, create new pollinator habitat which strengthens the habitat network for pollinators and delivers other ecosystem services.

Develop bumblebee habitat to support and extend the populations in neighbouring Salisbury Plain and West Wiltshire Downs NCA.

Should there be interest in growing crops which require insect pollination, opportunities to create pollinator habitat such as chalk grassland should be pursued in tandem.

Maintain and restore traditional orchards in the Vale of Pewsey.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Pollination
• Food provision
• Biodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Mixed broadleaved woodlands
• Beetle banks
• Field corners and margins

State – Squirrel and deer damage is impacting woodlands. Signal crayfish is present in the area.

Large blocks of single crops are farmed across extensive areas of arable downland. Features such as beetle banks, field corners and grassland margins may support predators of pests in nearby crops.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Good practice soil management which incorporates break crops and fallow periods may increase the numbers of predators present and help regulate pests.

Pest regulation is poor across large-scale homogeneous arable landscapes such as those found across the high Downs. In contrast, woodlands of mixed tree species and areas of mixed agriculture are more resilient to pests and diseases.

The variety of aspects and altitudes across the Downs offers micro-climates which may be less favourable to spread of pests.

Deer management takes place across large areas in some places.

Opportunities – Establish pest and disease management strategies.

Support co-ordinated deer management at a landscape-scale, encouraging these networks to work together to address other landscape- scale opportunities, for example timber provision, ecological networks.

Maintain heterogeneity of land use, features and management practices in order to support various natural predators of pests and to guard against simple, rapid pathways that might assist spread of disease and pests

Incorporate beetle banks, field corners and field margins into the arable landscape to encourage predators to aid the regulation of pests, conserve natural resources and provide biodiversity benefits.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Pest regulation
• Timber provision
• Food provision
• Regulating soil erosion
• Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Panoramic views
• Beech clumps, hangers
• Escarpment
• Chalk streams
• Open downland
• Settled and more wooded valley bottoms and vales
• Sarsen stones
• Avebury stone circle and associated ancient sites
• Numerous scheduled monuments
• The Ridgeway
• Chalk-cut horse figures
• Large arable fields
• Horse gallops and stables
• Historic buildings

State – The natural beauty and special scenic qualities of the area are reflected in designation as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The designation of this landscape reflects a strong scenic and landscape character and attracts resources towards its conservation.

Landform is prominent due to limited woodland cover and dramatic escarpments towering over low-lying vales. Features which punctuate the open landscape create landmarks or accents and include beech clumps, the Ridgeway, sarsen stones, horse gallops, earth monuments and chalk-cut horse figures.

With 442 scheduled monuments, many forming part of the Avebury World Heritage Site, the historic environment is evident and has inspired legends and artistic works. Beyond the open downland, intimacy is provided in valley bottoms and where woodlands are scattered. Chalk streams and springs are associated with settlements. Some ancient routeways remain in use.

Large fields, prehistoric monuments and limited modern development give the open landscape of the high Downs a remote and ancient character.

The Downs have long been associated with racehorse training. T he white-railed gallops and large stables and studs are a feature of the area. The area is second to Newmarket in terms of horse racing industry activity, with Lambourn known as the ‘valley of the racehorse’ (A study of key effects of the horseracing industry on the North Wessex Downs AONB (2007), Reading University and Smiths Gore).

Chalk streams are a valued fishing resource and pass through settlements. The area is famous for trout fishing.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – The quantity of Scheduled Monuments is considerable and collectively these historic features catalogue centuries of human activity. Many of the historic monuments are the product of past attempts to create distinctive places and landmarks, including chalk- cut horse figures. The ancient Uffington White Horse has inspired subsequent carvings.

Far-reaching views can be enjoyed by the public from the Ridgeway, for example, while the Downs make a prominent backdrop to views from the surrounding vales.

Many significant sites are visually and/or physically accessible to the public, including Avebury which attracts numerous visitors a year and striking landforms on the escarpment that are designated open access land.

The visitor experience can be awe- inspiring and dramatic at places such as Avebury and in the Vale of Pewsey where the stone henges are huge and at Fyfield Down NNR where sarsen stones lie in positions determined in the Quaternary. Education and interpretation of some features is lacking in some areas.

Numerous legends and uncertainties surrounding the origins and purpose of features such as Avebury and Silbury Hill have intrigued people throughout history. Distinguished historians, archaeologists and antiquarians have produced work relating to Avebury and surrounding monuments, including William Stukeley and Sir Richard Cold Hoare.

Writers inspired by this landscape include Thomas Hardy, Richard Jeffries, Edward Thomas, Kenneth Graham and Charles Hamilton Sorley. Equine artists have been attracted to the area, such as Sue Wingate, as well as generations of historians and artists intrigued by Avebury including Paul Nash.

The significance of chalk streams to sense of place is apparent from the community action inspired by the threat of their loss – ‘Action for the River Kennet was established in 1990.

The AONB designation promotes and conserves this area as a distinctive landscape, raising awareness amongst the public and managers of key features.

Development in the past century has negatively impacted local distinctiveness in some places.

Opportunities – Work with the AONB to conserve and enhance the landscape and the special qualities of the AONB. Work with various stakeholders to identify features that contribute significantly to sense of place. Seek to conserve these features, particularly where it conserves the landscape and special qualities of the AONB.

Identify key features in poor or deteriorating condition or vulnerable to climate change, and prioritise their conservation, for example Scheduled Monuments on the At Risk Register.

Protect and enhance the Avebury World Heritage Site and its attributes of Outstanding Universal Value for their contribution to sense of place and inspiration as well as historic value. Conserve historic buildings and, through the planning system, secure new development which reflects traditional construction and settlement pattern. Draw on best practice developed in the AONB.

Work with farmers and the horse racing industry to ensure they positively contribute to landscape character.

Engage local communities in celebrating, learning about and conserving valued features and their associated ecosystem services.

Secure improved access to key landscape features.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of place/inspiration
• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Sense of history
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Scheduled monuments
• Avebury stone circle and associated sites
• Ridgeway
• Ancient routeways
• Periglacial landforms and sarsen stone trains

State – Sense of history is strong in this NCA and includes distinctive prehistoric features. Avebury and associated sites have been recognised as a World Heritage Site. It presents an extensive and well-known historical landscape. There are numerous scheduled monuments (442), with a significant number at high or medium risk of damage or destruction. Rare causewayed enclosure monuments date back to the Early Neolithic. Features vary in terms of scale, presence and significance. There is evidence of man’s activity from the early Neolithic through the ages to the Second World War. Historic downland pasture is reduced to fragments on the scarp.

Opportunities to experience key historic landscapes and features are provided by the Ridgeway, open access land and National Trust land. The Ridgeway is an ancient, well known track. Historic buildings and traditional building materials feature in the built environment.

Periglacial landforms and undisturbed sarsen stone trains are distinct and relic landscapes that make tangible the time of the Quaternary glaciations.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – This is a visibly ancient landscape, with numerous scheduled monuments and an extensive World Heritage Site (just over 25 km2). Some features are large, including Silbury Hill which is the largest man-made mound in Europe and the Wansdyke. With many scheduled monuments present in the now arable landscape of the former downlands, there are risks of damage associated with cultivation. There is limited public access to many assets and sites. Pagan observances and international interest in key monuments generates exceptional visitor pressures to a number of key sites including Avebury, West Kennet barrow, Silbury Hill, Wayland’s Smithy, Uffington Castle and the Uffington White Horse. However, there are key features under grass and arable reversion has been undertaken in the World Heritage Site.

The Ridgeway is a key historic access resource, linking some of the most notable sites in the NCA. The Ridgeway can come under pressure and suffer erosion and damage as a result of the many and varied users. The history of the landscape is further evident in the irregular field patterns of the valleys, and the traditional buildings and building materials of thatch, red brick and weatherboard characteristic of the older buildings in the valleys, sometimes with knapped flint and weathered chalk in their walls.

Dating as far back as the Quaternary, the periglacial landforms and sarsen stones that are so distinctive of the area generate a deep time-depth.

Opportunities – Engage communities and owners of historic features in celebrating and conserving the historic environment, including developing skills and industry around historic environment conservation and traditional building materials and construction.

Seek arable reversion where scheduled monuments are at risk, securing additional biodiversity, public access and soil conservation benefits if possible.

Where cultivation is necessary, adopt farming practices such as minimum tillage which limit damage to historic features.

Improve the setting of key historic features, where possible improving public access through the landscape and incorporating species-rich grassland.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Sense of history
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Recreation Biodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Sparsely settled downland
• Scarp
• Ancient woodland

State – This NCA offers highly tranquil spaces associated with the open, sparsely-settled chalk downland and the ancient woodland of Savernake Forest.

The M4 and A34 corridors pass through what would be otherwise tranquil areas. Disturbance caused by off-road vehicles has been identified along the Ridgeway and other routes.

Main beneficiary – Regional

Analysis – Highly tranquil spaces contrast with the neighbouring major urban centres of Swindon and Reading and the M4.

Tranquillity is further enhanced by the associations with many ancient sites and monuments although visitors to the most popular sites and features can intrude on tranquillity. Noise from motorised vehicles using byways can negatively impact upon the experiences of other user groups.

The Ridgeway and areas of open access land provide public access to highly tranquil places. Low trafficked lanes provide valued routes for cyclists.

The level of tranquillity within the NCA has dropped significantly, from 90 per cent of the area being classified as undisturbed in the 1960s to 55 per cent in 2007. Construction of major routes cutting through the NCA including the M4 and expansion of settlements such as Swindon have led to rural areas becoming ‘urbanised’ and subject to noise pollution, development, and light pollution.

Opportunities – Further erosion of tranquillity should be avoided by ensuring development in areas of high to medium tranquillity is appropriate.

Seek to manage visitor numbers to the most popular sites to limit their impact on tranquillity.

Encourage dispersal of visitors away from ‘honeypot’ sites by promoting alternative destinations which are resilient to visitor pressure.

Promote appropriate recreational behaviour through visitor information and education. Work with off-road clubs to reduce potential negative impacts of their activities.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Tranquillity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Rights of way
• Open access land
• Ridgeway National Trail
• Kennet and Avon Canal
• National cycle routes and regional promoted routes
• Woodlands

State – Recreation opportunities are provided by just less than 2,000 km of rights of way as well as almost 2,000 ha of open access land (2 per cent of the NCA).

The Ridgeway National Trail and Kennet and Avon Canal towpath pass through the NCA, with further promoted routes such as the Lambourn Valley Way. There are cycle and horse riding routes including the Three Downs Link. The rivers and canal are important coarse and game fisheries, with numerous angling clubs.

Accessible woodlands cover a further 2,298 ha, with Savernake Forest being an important greenspace in private ownership.

Greenspace made accessible by the National Trust, Natural England and others provides important additional recreation opportunities.

Main beneficiary – Local

Analysis – Due to significant historic losses of downland pasture to arable, there are limited areas of open access land and also limited rights of way across the downs. Land ownership involving large estates and a small local population has further limited the development of public access routes. Compared to other AONB and National Parks in the south-east, the North Wessex Downs has the smallest percentage of accessible natural greenspace at just 4 per cent of its area.

Promoted routes including the Ridgeway provide access to key landscape features, which encompass extensive views and links to key historic features. Permissive or informal access routes and areas will be significant in areas where public access is limited. The Ridgeway and canal towpath are high profile multi-user routes. The River Kennet has suffered negative effects of recreational boating.

The large number of multi-user routes gives rise to the potential for conflict between different user groups. Motorised vehicles are particularly associated with erosion and noise that can impact negatively on the experience of other user groups.

Public access along riverbanks is restricted by private fishing interests.

If recreational use of the larger North Wessex Downs AONB is true of this NCA, the area is not well used, despite neighbouring large urban centres.

Opportunities – Seek improved links and additional open access land around key features and settlements where sustainable.

Manage visitor pressure on fragile historic or natural features.

Review visitor information, signage and facilities and ensure they meet the needs of users and are designed to be sustainable and contribute positively to landscape character.

Promote appropriate recreational behaviour on the waterways to ensure conservation of chalk streams and fisheries interests.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Recreation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Biodiversity
• Geodiversity

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Chalk streams
• Chalk grassland
• Farmland birds
• Rare arable flora
• Ancient woodland
• Savernake Forest
• Lichen flora

State – There are six SAC in this NCA, including long stretches of chalk stream. More than 2,000 ha are designated SSSI, with Savernake Forest being the largest SSSI at approx 900 ha.

Only 3 per cent (60ha approximately) of SSSI area is in unfavourable declining condition. In contrast, 66 per cent (1,500 ha approximately) of SSSI area in recovering from unfavourable condition.

An additional 5 per cent of the NCA is recognised by local communities as 442 Local Wildlife Sites. Two National Nature Reserves, open access land and other accessible greenspaces provide opportunities to enjoy the area’s biodiversity. Native fish populations of lamprey and wild trout are valued.

This NCA supports established populations of farmland birds including skylark and tree sparrow as well as a small population of stone curlew.

Rare lower plants are associated with the trees at Savernake and the sarsen stones at Fylfield Down and are subject to SSSI designation.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Among the SSSI are a range of habitats, with several sites being a matrix of different habitats. Important biodiversity is protected by SSSI designation including one of the best examples of a lichen community in north- west Europe at Fyfield Down. This NCA also supports thriving farmland bird populations in some parts, including a small population of stone curlew, as well as rare arable plants. A long history of cultivation has allowed the establishment of populations of farmland birds and mammals and also seed banks of rare arable plants. The open farmed landscape and the mosaic of habitats caters for farmland birds and species such as brown hare.

Key threats to chalk grassland include encroaching scrub and inappropriate grazing/cutting (usually not enough grazing pressure). Farmland birds can suffer from lack of nesting habitat and food. Pollution, low flows and modified channels negatively impact upon the ecology of chalk streams.

Conservation efforts have benefitted a large area of SSSI habitat, largely as a result of targeted management under agri environment schemes. Other biodiversity features outside SSSI will have been targeted for conservation since the AONB has been a focus for agri environment schemes and projects such as the Farmland Bird Initiative and habitat restoration along the Kennet.

Chalk streams have attracted particular local community interest, as illustrated by ‘Action for the River Kennet’.

A farmland bird project has also been long established in this area, working towards conservation of species such as stone curlew.

Opportunities – Build a resilient ecological network to support biodiversity across the NCA, incorporating public access wherever possible. Conserve large areas of semi-natural habitat as core areas, such as Fyfield Down NNR and the River Lambourn SAC. Conserve and create links to address fragmentation and isolation, making use of long-established byways in particular and securing benefits for recreation and sense of tranquillity.

Restore the channel of the River Kennet to support a naturally recruiting trout population.

Conserve the range of farmland species, including rare arable plants, farmland birds and mammals such as brown hare. Maintain the mosaic of habitats to provide food and nesting sites in and around the field as well as in hedgerows, woodlands and other semi natural habitats on the farm. Protect soil and water resources through this management.

Conserve species populations which are special to this NCA including lower plant interest and stone curlew.

Work with local community groups to secure biodiversity benefits and other ecosystem services which are valued by them.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Biodiversity
• Recreation
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Tranquillity
• Regulating water quality
• Regulating soil quality

Assets/attributes: main contributors to service –

• Sarsen stones
• Chalk pits
• Karst landforms
• Chalk hard grounds
• Chalk soils
• Chalk rivers and floodplains
• Flint
• River terraces

State – There are seven SSSI with geodiversity interest and seven Local Geological Sites.

Across the Downs, there are dramatic karst landforms which are well known landmarks including the distinctive combe known as ‘The Manger’ and the Avebury plain. River systems are fed by groundwater and comprise several SAC. The Kennet exhibits gravel terraces on the lower dip slope.

Chalk-cut figures celebrate the Chalk. There are only a few extant chalk pits including SSSI pits which reveal evidence of climatic change in the geological past. Chalk, as well as Greensand, also functions as a major aquifer.

Sarsen stones are considered ‘one of the most identifiable and well known aspects’ of this area’s geodiversity (Local Geodiversity Action Plan for the North Wessex Downs AONB (2007), Oxfordshire Geology Trust). The few examples of sarsen stone ‘trains’ are protected as SSSI for being rare relicts of the Quaternary landscape, but more common are smaller groups or individual sarsens found in fields and moved to field edges. Sarsens also contribute to a distinctive built heritage which includes prehistoric stone circles. Other hard bedrocks including Melbourn Rock, Chalk Rock and flint are traditional building materials.

Main beneficiary – National

Analysis – Landform is prominent across the open downland where concealing woodland cover is absent and there are few distracting features. The significance of the escarpment has long attracted interest, as demonstrated by the numerous chalk-cut horse figures and historic monuments along the escarpments.

The properties of Chalk and an understanding of features such as swallow holes and percolation rates is important in terms of how it dictates function of the major aquifer.

Chalk streams, which are valued by local communities and by nature conservation designations, are dependent upon groundwater, with their flora and fauna benefitting from water that is clear, alkaline and of a stable temperature. The geology of the area influences land use. Farmers have made use of the easily cultivated chalk soils, while the clay-with-flint soils are utilised as woodland.

Local legends are linked to particular landforms and to sarsen stones. The Manger, for example, has several common names and stories linked to it.

Over time, the majority of sarsen stones have been moved by people to enable more efficient farming and for use in building. The presence of sarsens in high densities in some locations has promoted pasture management, with Fyfield and Piggledene SSSI being examples of undisturbed sarsen ‘trains’ upon semi- natural grazed grassland.

There are local community groups carrying out geo-conservation and public engagement activities.

Opportunities – Continue to improve interpretation and public access that supports geo-conservation and maintains important cultural heritage interests linked to geodiversity.

Identify and secure further chalk exposures and boreholes for research and education, particularly in relation to aquifer function.

Work with existing and new groups, including landowners of green spaces, to build capacity to carry out geo-conservation activities and education alongside or separate from other activities.

Secure benefits to geodiversity through landscape scale projects which integrate multiple landscape objectives.

Engage communities and property owners in celebrating and continuing use of local building materials, including developing skills and industry around traditional building materials.

The relationship between geodiversity in this area and the underlying aquifer, water quality and availability, and soils presents an opportunity to engage a wide audience in better understanding natural processes that limit available resources.

Principal services offered by opportunities –

• Geodiversity
• Sense of place/inspiration
• Sense of history
• Regulating soil quality
• Regulating soil erosion
• Water availability
• Regulating water quality
• Recreation
• Sense of history